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Unrelated species often evolve similar phenotypic solutions to the same environmental problem, a phenomenon known as convergent evolution. But how do these common traits arise? We address this question from a physiological perspective by assessing how convergence of an elaborate gestural display in frogs (foot-flagging) is linked to changes in the androgenic hormone systems that underlie it. We show that the emergence of this rare display in unrelated anuran taxa is marked by a robust increase in the expression of androgen receptor (AR) messenger RNA in the musculature that actuates leg and foot movements, but we find no evidence of changes in the abundance of AR expression in these frogs' central nervous systems. Meanwhile, the magnitude of the evolutionary change in muscular AR and its association with the origin of foot-flagging differ among clades, suggesting that these variables evolve together in a mosaic fashion. Finally, while gestural displays do differ between species, variation in the complexity of a foot-flagging routine does not predict differences in muscular AR. Altogether, these findings suggest that androgen-muscle interactions provide a conduit for convergence in sexual display behavior, potentially providing a path of least resistance for the evolution of motor performance.

Since 2000, collaborative and multidisciplinary field inventories have helped quadruple park coverage in Peru’s richest region., Meeting international commitments to protect 17% of terrestrial ecosystems worldwide will require >3 million square kilometers of new protected areas and strategies to create those areas in a way that respects local communities and land use. In 2000–2016, biological and social scientists worked to increase the protected proportion of Peru’s largest department via 14 interdisciplinary inventories covering >9 million hectares of this megadiverse corner of the Amazon basin. In each landscape, the strategy was the same: convene diverse partners, identify biological and sociocultural assets, document residents’ use of natural resources, and tailor the findings to the needs of decision-makers. Nine of the 14 landscapes have since been protected (5.7 million hectares of new protected areas), contributing to a quadrupling of conservation coverage in Loreto (from 6 to 23%). We outline the methods and enabling conditions most crucial for successfully applying similar campaigns elsewhere on Earth.

Euspondylus excelsum was described from 8 specimens from the Region Huánuco in central Peru. We obtained an adult female from the Region Junín and a subadult male (photo vouchers only) from the Region Madre de Dios. Our new records of E. excelsum extend the range of this species by 592 km to the south and increase the previously known elevational range from 1023–1159 m a.s.l. to 550–1550 m a.s.l. The adult female is the largest known specimen extending the maximum SVL to 90.1 mm. Our findings indicate that E. excelsum is relatively widely distributed in the montane forests and foothills of the eastern Andes. Its arboreal mode of life is probably one reason for its rarity and limited records during traditional field surveys.

Assessments of extinction risk are required to inform conservation action, but the usefulness of assessments is undermined if they are not current. Ameerega planipaleae, a poison frog endemic to the cloud forests of central Peru, was last assessed in 2004. We therefore sought to provide updated data to inform the reassessment of this species. Based on our findings, we recommend that this frog remain categorized as Critically Endangered, but under modified criteria, and that conservation actions are taken to reduce the pressures of local threats, especially the overuse of agrochemicals.

We describe two new species of poison frog from central and southern Peru that have been referred to as Ameerega picta, A. hahneli, or A. altamazonica throughout the past thirty years. Our phylogenies generated with genomic data provide strong support that the two new species are successive sisters to two described taxa, A. rubriventris and A. altamazonica, and collectively comprise the Ameerega rubriventris complex. The first new taxon, Ameerega panguana sp. nov., can be distinguished from all other Ameerega by its combination of a unique white venter and an advertisement call of 1–2 notes per second. The second new taxon, Ameerega imasmari sp. nov., is the only cryptically colored Ameerega species that is disttributed across the Fitzcarrald Arch in Southern Peru which possesses a ‘peep’ advertisement call consisting of 3–4 notes per second and a dominant frequency of 4.3–4.5 kHz. Within the Ameerega rubriventris complex, we observed differences between species in their ventral coloration, tympanum diameter, and call, which suggest that these taxa are reproductively isolated from each other.

Critical thermal limits are thought to be correlated with the elevational distribution of species living in tropical montane regions, but with upper limits being relatively invariant compared to lower limits. To test this hypothesis, we examined the variation of thermal physiological traits in a group of terrestrial breeding frogs (Craugastoridae) distributed along a tropical elevational gradient. We measured the critical thermal maximum (CT max; n = 22 species) and critical thermal minimum (CT min; n = 14 species) of frogs captured between the Amazon floodplain (250 m asl) and the high Andes (3,800 m asl). After inferring a multilocus species tree, we conducted a phylogenetically informed test of whether body size, body mass, and elevation contributed to the observed variation in CT max and CT min along the gradient. We also tested whether CT max and CT min exhibit different rates of change given that critical thermal limits (and their plasticity) may have evolved differently in response to different temperature constraints along the gradient. Variation of critical thermal traits was significantly correlated with species’ elevational midpoint, their maximum and minimum elevations, as well as the maximum air temperature and the maximum operative temperature as measured across this gradient. Both thermal limits showed substantial variation, but CT min exhibited relatively faster rates of change than CT max, as observed in other taxa. Nonetheless, our findings call for caution in assuming inflexibility of upper thermal limits and underscore the value of collecting additional empirical data on species’ thermal physiology across elevational gradients.

The lowland rainforests of the Amazon basin harbor some of the most species-rich reptile communities on Earth. However, there is considerable heterogeneity among climatically-similar sites across the Amazon basin, and faunal surveys for southwestern Amazonia in particular have revealed lower species diversity relative to sites in the northwestern and central Amazon. Here, we report a herpetofaunal inventory for Los Amigos Biological Station (LABS), a lowland site located in the Madre de Dios watershed of southern Peru. By combining active search and passive trapping methods with prior records for the site, we provide a comprehensive species list for squamate reptiles from LABS. We also estimate an &ldquo, expected&rdquo, list for LABS by tabulating additional taxa known from the regional species pool that we consider to have a high probability of detection with further sampling. The LABS total of 60 snake and 26 lizard taxa is perhaps the highest for any single site in the southern Amazon. Our estimate of the regional species pool for LABS suggests that the southwestern Amazonian lowlands harbor at least 25% fewer species of snakes relative to the western equatorial Amazon, a diversity reduction that is consistent with patterns observed in several other taxonomic groups. We discuss potential causes of this western Amazonian richness gradient and comment on the relationship between spatial diversity patterns in squamates and other taxa in the Amazon basin.

Procedure for multilocus sequence typing (MLST) from amphibian skin swabs using Sanger sequencing.

Protocol for extracting DNA from amphibian skin swabs using the Qiagen DNeasy blood and Tissue Kit.

Method for quantitative (real-time) PCR using TaqMan reagents

Protocol for extracting DNA from amphibian skin swabs using the Qiagen DNeasy blood and Tissue Kit.

Climate change is affecting biodiversity and ecosystem function worldwide, and the lowland tropics are of special concern because organisms living in this region experience temperatures that are close to their upper thermal limits. However, it remains unclear how and whether tropical lowland species will be able to cope with the predicted pace of climate warming. Additionally, there is growing interest in examining how quickly thermal physiological traits have evolved across taxa, and whether thermal physiological traits are evolutionarily conserved or labile. We measured critical thermal maximum (CTmax) and minimum (CTmin) in 56 species of lowland Amazonian frogs to determine the extent of phylogenetic conservatism in tolerance to heat and cold, and to predict species' vulnerability to climate change. The species we studied live in sympatry and represent ~65% of the known alpha diversity at our study site. Given that critical thermal limits may have evolved differently in response to different temperature constraints, we tested whether CTmax and CTmin exhibit different rates of evolutionary change. Measuring both critical thermal traits allowed us to estimate species' thermal breadth and infer their potential to respond to abrupt changes in temperature (warming and cooling). Additionally, we assessed the contribution of life history traits and found that both critical thermal traits were correlated with species' body size and microhabitat use. Specifically, small direct-developing frogs in the Strabomantidae family appear to be at highest risk of thermal stress while tree frogs (Hylidae) and narrow mouthed frogs (Microhylidae) tolerate higher temperatures. While CTmax and CTmin had considerable variation within and among families, both critical thermal traits exhibited similar rates of evolutionary change. Our results suggest that 4% of lowland rainforest frogs assessed will experience temperatures exceeding their CTmax, 25% might be moderately affected and 70% are unlikely to experience pronounced heat stress under a hypothetical 3°C temperature increase.

The Amazonian poison frog genus Ameerega is one of the largest yet most understudied of the brightly colored genera in the anuran family Dendrobatidae, with 30 described species ranging throughout tropical South America. Phylogenetic analyses of Ameerega are highly discordant, lacking consistency due to variation in data types and methods, and often with limited coverage of species diversity in the genus. Here, we present a comprehensive phylogenomic reconstruction of Ameerega, utilizing state-of-the-art sequence capture techniques and phylogenetic methods. We sequenced thousands of ultraconserved elements from over 100 tissue samples, representing almost every described Ameerega species, as well as undescribed cryptic diversity. We generated topologies using maximum likelihood and coalescent methods and compared the use of maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods for estimating divergence times. Our phylogenetic inference diverged strongly from those of previous studies, and we recommend steps to bring Ameerega taxonomy in line with the new phylogeny. We place several species in a phylogeny for the first time, as well as provide evidence for six potential candidate species. We estimate that Ameerega experienced a rapid radiation approximately 7–11 million years ago and that the ancestor of all Ameerega was likely an aposematic, montane species. This study underscores the utility of phylogenomic data in improving our understanding of the phylogeny of understudied clades and making novel inferences about their evolution., Much of this research was supported by start-up to JLB provided by SIU. WXG is thankful for funding from the Students United in Exploring, Preserving, and Researching Biodiversity (SUPERB) fellowship, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), USA (DUE-1564969). IDlR thanks the Spanish government for funding under project CGL2014-56160-P. Collection of some specimens Ameerega from southern Peru (e.g., Villa Carmen) was funded by a fellowship from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation (to D. Rabosky).

We propose to erect a new genus of terrestrial-breeding frogs of the Terrarana clade to accommodate three species from the Province La Convenci&oacute, n, Department of Cusco, Peru previously assigned to Bryophryne: B. flammiventris, B. gymnotis, and B. mancoinca. We examined types and specimens of most species, reviewed morphological and bioacoustic characteristics, and performed molecular analyses on the largest phylogeny of Bryophryne species to date. We performed phylogenetic analysis of a dataset of concatenated sequences from fragments of the 16S rRNA and 12S rRNA genes, the protein-coding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), the nuclear protein-coding gene recombination-activating protein 1 (RAG1), and the tyrosinase precursor (Tyr). The three species are immediately distinguishable from all other species of Bryophryne by the presence of a tympanic membrane and annulus, and by males having median subgular vocal sacs and emitting advertisement calls. Our molecular phylogeny confirms that the three species belong to a new, distinct clade, which we name Qosqophryne, and that they are reciprocally monophyletic with species of Microkayla. These two genera (Qosqophryne and Microkayla) are more closely related to species of Noblella and Psychrophrynella than to species of Bryophryne. Although there are no known morphological synapomorphies for either Microkayla or Qosqophryne, the high endemism of their species, and the disjoint geographic distribution of the two genera, with a gap region of ~310 km by airline where both genera are absent, provide further support for Qosqophryne having long diverged from Microkayla. The exploration of high elevation moss and leaf litter habitats in the tropical Andes will contribute to increase knowledge of the diversity and phylogenetic relationships within Terrarana.

Amazonian bamboo forests dominated by large woody bamboo plants in the genusGuaduacover approximately 180,000 km2and represent a key resource for many organisms. In southwestern Amazonia, native bamboo forests differ in structure, biodiversity, and growth dynamics from other forest types in the region. However, with the exception of a few species in which habitat specialization or a strong habitat association has been demonstrated, little is known about how bamboo forests influence animal community structure. In an effort to understand more about the animal assemblages associated with Amazonian bamboo forests, we characterized the structure of ground-dwelling beetle assemblages living in bamboo forests and adjacent terra firme forests in a lowland rainforest site in Peru. We conducted intensive pitfall trap surveys in 13 bamboo habitat patches and 13 adjacent terra firme habitat patches to determine if there were differences in the abundance and richness of beetle species in these two habitat types. Additionally, given that southwestern Amazonia experiences distinct dry and wet seasons, we conducted our study during the dry and wet season of one year to account for differences in seasonality. We found a distinct beetle assemblage associated with each forest type, and identified a set of dominant species that significantly contributed to the distinctness in beetle community structure between bamboo and terra firme forest. The terra firme forest had a greater number of rare species than the bamboo forest. Several beetle species exhibited a strong association with the bamboo forest, including a large species of Scarabaeidae that appears to be specializing on bamboo. We also found marked differences in beetle assemblages between dry and wet seasons. Our results support the prediction that beetle community structure in bamboo forest differs from that of terra firme in terms of species richness, abundance, and composition. Bamboo-associated animal communities require more exploration and study, and must be included in regional conservation plans seeking to protect entire animal communities in southwestern Amazonia.

We describe three new species of Pristimantis from the upper montane forests and high Andean grasslands of the Pui Pui Protected Forest and its close surroundings (Region Junin, central Peru) and compare them morphologically and genetically with other taxonomically and biogeographically relevant species of Pristimantis . All three new species have the skin on dorsum shagreen with scattered tubercles, discontinuous dorsolateral folds, tuberculate flanks, and the skin on venter areolate. Pristimantis bounides sp. nov. is known from two localities outside the Pui Pui Protected Forest in upper montane forests between 3350 and 3463 m a.s.l. and is characterized by a snout–vent length of 18.2–21.0 mm in males (n = 3), and 21.6–24.4 mm in females (n = 4), by having a tympanum, males with vocal slits, and discs of digits slightly expanded with circumferential grooves. In life, dorsal and lateral ground coloration is pale grayish brown, orange brown, yellowish brown or reddish brown with dark grayish-brown marmorations, and a pale gray, pale greenish gray or creamish white venter with or without dark gray mottling. Pristimantis humboldti sp. nov. is known from one locality inside the Pui Pui Protected Forest, in upper montane forest at 3318 m a.s.l., and is characterized by a snout–vent length of 17.2–20.6 mm in males (n = 3), and 19.7–25.7 mm in females (n = 6), by having a tympanum, males with vocal slits, and discs of digits expanded with circumferential grooves. In life, dorsal and lateral ground coloration is orange brown with brownish-olive blotches, orange brown with grayish-brown blotches and flecks, reddish brown with grayish-brown blotches or grayish brown with orange brown blotches; throat, chest, belly, anterior and ventral surfaces of thighs, tibia, and axilla are dark gray and pale gray mottled with white and pale gray spots of different sizes and density. Pristimantis puipui sp. nov. is known from one locality inside the Pui Pui Protected Forest, in the puna at 3890 m a.s.l., and is characterized by a snout–vent length of 16.1–17.1 mm in males (n = 3), and 20.6–22.4 mm in females (n = 4), by lacking a tympanum, lacking males with vocal slits, and tips of digits narrow without circumferential grooves. In life, dorsal and lateral ground coloration is pale orange brown, reddish brown or grayish brown with or without grayish-brown mottling, and the venter is pale cream and pale gray mottled. A molecular phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences inferred that the three new species belong to the Pristimantis danae species Group distributed in the montane forests and high Andean grasslands of central Peru, including P. albertus , P. aniptopalmatus , P. ornatus , and P. stictogaster . With the three new species, 133 species of Pristimantis are currently known from Peru, eight of which inhabit the puna.

Peru supports approximately 588 amphibian species, of which 492 have been assessed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Of these, 111 are classified as Threatened, with 69 species classified as Critically Endangered or Endangered. In addition, 140 amphibian species remain Data Deficient. We re-assessed the conservation status of 38 amphibian species originally identified as potentially Threatened by von May et al. (2008), using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Fourteen species assessments changed as a result of re-assessment, of which eight changed from Data Deficient to Threatened; two changed from Data Deficient to Near Threatened and Least Concern respectively; two were up-listed from Least Concern to a Threatened status; two were down-listed. None of the changes were due to a known genuine change since the previous assessment. All changes were justified by an increase in knowledge. The eight species with a change from Data Deficient to a Threatened category belonged to four anuran families: Craugastoridae, Dendrobatidae, Hemiphractidae and Telmatobiidae. The reasons for a change in assessment status were: changes in taxonomy, distribution, population status, threat status, or previously incorrect information. The main threat affecting re-assessed amphibian species was habitat loss, with other threats including pollution, disease outbreaks, and collection for the pet trade. Only 53% of the re-assessed species were found to occur in a protected area. Findings of this study indicate the continuing fragility of many Peruvian amphibians and highlight the need for improving their protection and for further research into their population status and threats.

A new species of Noblella is described from the humid montane forest of the Región Cusco in Peru. Specimens were collected at 2330-2370 m elevation in Madre Selva, near Santa Ana, in the province of La Convención. The new species is readily distinguished from all other species of Noblella by having a broad, irregularly shaped, white mark on black background on chest and belly. The new species further differs from known Peruvian species of Noblella by the combination of the following characters: tympanic membrane absent, small tubercles on the upper eyelid and on dorsum, tarsal tubercles or folds absent, tips of digits not expanded, no circumferential grooves on digits, dark brown facial mask and lateral band extending from the tip of the snout to the inguinal region. The new species has a snout-to-vent length of 15.6 mm in one adult male and 17.6 mm in one adult female. Like other recently described species in the genus, this new Noblella inhabits high-elevation forests in the Andes and likely has a restricted geographic distribution.ResumenDescribimos una nueva especie de

We provide a new record of the poorly known and endangered Pristimantis katoptroides from the Cordillera Central in Peru, based on a specimen collected in the Alto Mayo Protected Forest, San Martin Department. We provide notes on the morphology and coloration of the species and two other specimens previously collected in Peru, as well as photographs and an updated map indicating the known localities of P. katoptroides. This record represents an extension of 210 km in the southern limit of the geographic range. Additionally, we report the presence of the chytrid fungus in this species.

Peru hosts a rich amphibian fauna with approximately 571 species described to date. Many of these species have been formally described only recently, and many more remain to be discovered and recognized. Despite the increase in the number of known species, some reports indicate recent, and in some cases enigmatic, loss of species richness at several sites in the Peruvian Andes. Similar population declines have been observed in neighboring Andean countries. The pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is associated with some of these declines, and we include a timeline of records of this pathogen in Peruvian amphibians. However, the paucity of standardized, long-term surveys limits our ability to understand the causes of declines and to assess the conservation status of Peruvian amphibians. Here we provide updated information on the conservation status of amphibians in Peru, and we discuss the possible causes of the observed declines. Furthermore, we discuss present and future threats to ...

We describe and name a new species of poison-dart frog from the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Manu Province, Madre de Dios Department, Peru; specifically within the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve and the buffer zone of Manu National Park. Ameerega shihuemoy sp. nov. is supported by a unique combination of characters: black dorsum with cream to light orange dorsolateral lines, blue belly reticulated with black, and the lack of axillary, thigh and calf flash marks. Within Ameerega , it shares the general appearance of A. altamazonica, A. boliviana, A. hahneli , A. ignipedis , A. petersi , A. picta , A. pongoensis , A. pulchripecta , A. simulans , A. smaragdina , and A. yungicola ; each possessing a granular black to brown dorsum, a light labial bar, a conspicuous dorsolateral line running from the snout to the groin, and a metallic blue belly and underside of arms and hind limbs. From most of these species it can be distinguished by lacking flash marks on the axillae, thighs, and calves (absent in only A. boliviana and A. smaragdina, most A. petersi, and some A. pongoensis ), by having bright cream to orange dorsolateral stripes (white, intense yellow, or green in all other species, with the exception of A. picta ), and by its blue belly reticulated with black (bluish white and black in A. boliviana , green and blue with black marbling in A. petersi, and green and blue lacking black marbling in A. smaragdina ). Its mating call also shows clear differences to morphologically similar species, with a lower note repetition rate, longer space between calls, and higher fundamental and dominant frequencies. Phylogenetic analyses based on the 16S mitochondrial rRNA fragment also support the distinctiveness of the new species and suggest that A. shihuemoy is most closely related to Ameerega macero , A. altamazonica , A. rubriventris , and two undescribed species ( Ameerega sp. from Porto Walter, Acre, Brazil, and Ameerega sp. from Ivochote, Cusco, Peru). Genetically, the new species is most similar to the sympatric A. macero , from which it clearly differs in characteristics of its advertisement call and coloration. The new species is found near rocky streams during the dry season and near temporary water bodies during the rainy season. Tadpoles are found in lentic water along streams, or in shallow, slow-moving streams. Given its small geographic range, we recommend that A. shihuemoy should be considered 'Near threatened' (NT) according to IUCN Red List criteria.

Outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases are becoming more frequent as climate changes wildlife communities at unprecedented rates, driving population declines and raising concerns for species conservation. One critical disease is the global pandemic of chytridiomycosis in frogs, which can be caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Although there is clear evidence for Bd-induced mortality across high-elevation frog communities, little attention is given to the role of lowlands in Bd’s persistence and spread because low elevations are assumed to be too warm to harbor significant levels of Bd. Here, we report widespread Bd infection across 80 frog species from three sites in the lowland Peruvian Amazon, an area with no documented Bd-related amphibian declines. Despite observing no clinical signs of infection in the field, we found that 24–46% of individuals were infected per site (up to ≈105,000 zoospore equivalents per frog) by three Bd strains from the global pandemic lineage (Bd-GPL). We also found collection site and seasonal effects to be only weak predictors of Bd prevalence and load, with lower elevation and drier habitats marginally decreasing both prevalence and load. We found no further effect of host phylogeny, ecotype, or body size. Our results showing high and widespread prevalence across a lowland tropical ecosystem contradict the expectations based on the global pattern of pathogenicity of Bd that is largely restricted to higher elevations and colder temperatures. These findings imply that the lowlands may play a critical role in the spread and persistence of Bd over time and space.

We describe and name a new species of Noblella Barbour, 1930 (Strabomantidae) from southern Peru. Key diagnostic characteristics of the new species include the presence of a short, oblique fold-like tubercle on the ventral part of the tarsal region, two phalanges on finger IV, and an evident tympanum. The elevational distribution of the new species spans 1250 m (240&ndash, 1490 m) from lowland Amazon rainforest to montane forest on the eastern slopes of the Andes.

We compile a list of all amphibians and reptiles known to occur within Manu National Park, Peru and its buffer zone, located in one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. Covering approximately 0.01% of the planet's terrestrial surface, this protected area preserves 155 species of amphibians and 132 species of reptiles, corresponding to 2.2% and 1.5% respectively of the known diversity for these groups. Moreover, Manu National Park preserves natural habitats and populations of one critically endangered (Atelopus erythropus), three endangered (Bryophryne cophites, Pristimantis cosnipatae and Psychrophrynella usurpator), three vulnerable amphibians (Atelopus tricolor, Gastrotheca excubitor, Rhinella manu) and two vulnerable reptiles (Chelonoidis denticulata, Podocnemis unifilis), according to the threat categories of the IUCN Red List. Producimos una lista de las especies de anfibios y reptiles conocidas del Parque Nacional del Manu, Perú y su zona de amortiguamiento, ubicados en unas de las regiones con más biodiversidad en el planeta. El área protegida cubre tan solo cerca del 0.01% de la superficie terrestre mundial, sin embargo conserva a 155 especies de anfibios y 132 especies de reptiles, lo cual corresponde al 2.2% de todos los anfibios y al 1.5% de todos los reptiles conocidos. Además, el Parque Nacional del Manu protege los hábitats y las poblaciones de una especie críticamente amenazada (Atelopus erythropus), tres especies amenazadas (Bryophryne cophites, Pristimantis cosnipatae y Psychrophrynella usurpator), tres especies vulnerables de anfibios (Atelopus tricolor, Gastrotheca excubitor, Rhinella manu), y dos especies vulnerables de reptiles (Chelonoidis denticulata, Podocnemis unifilis), de acuerdo a las categorías de amenaza de la Lista Roja de la UICN.

The amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is causing population declines and species extirpations worldwide. Montane amphibians in tropical and temperate regions are especially vulnerable to chytridiomycosis. High-elevation amphibian assemblages typically include few species, so that epizootics should be limited once high frog mortality hinders transmission of the pathogen. We hypothesized that tadpoles of a high-elevation frog in the Peruvian Andes, Telmatobius jelskii, could function as reservoir for Bd in Andean streams. We postulated that, for tadpoles to function as an efficient reservoir of Bd, they should inhabit streams over extended periods of time, and have high prevalence of Bd. We surveyed streams between 2400 and 4850 m in the wet and dry seasons of 2010, where we captured, swabbed and determined the developmental stage of 458 tadpoles. We found that cohorts of tadpoles overlap continuously in these streams, as a consequence of multiple breeding events throughout the year. Prevalence of Bd among tadpoles averaged 53.1% (95% confidence interval: 49.8–56.3%); 8 out of 13 streams inhabited by T. jelskii had a prevalence greater than 50%. Prevalence of Bd was also higher during the dry season and increased with the age of the tadpoles. Our results support the hypothesis that the year-long presence of infected tadpoles in streams makes high-Andean Telmatobius frogs especially vulnerable to chytridiomycosis. The genus is already extirpated in Ecuador, and has been observed to decline rapidly in Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. Conservation strategies to mitigate the impact of Bd on populations of Telmatobius should consider aquatic life-stages.

We describe a new species of Pristimantis from the humid sub-montane forest of the Región Cusco in Peru. Pristimantis pluvialis sp. n. was collected in the Kosñipata and Entoro valleys at elevations from 740 to 1110 m a.s.l., near the borders of Manu National Park and within the Huachiperi Haramba Queros Conservation Concession. The new species can be distinguished from other members of the genus Pristimantis by its rostral tubercle, smooth dorsal skin, and by its advertisement call. Pristimantis lacrimosus and Pristimantis waoranii superficially most resemble the new species, but Pristimantis pluvialis sp. n. differs from both species by having a rostral tubercle (absent in Pristimantis waoranii and variable in Pristimantis lacrimosus) and larger size, from Pristimantis lacrimosus by its call emitted at a lower frequency, and from Pristimantis waoranii for its dorsal coloration with dark markings. Two other species have partially overlapping distributions and resemble the new species, Pristimantis mendax and Pristimantis olivaceus, but they produce advertisement calls with much higher dominant frequencies than the advertisement call of the new species. Furthermore, Pristimantis mendax differs from the new species by lacking a rostral tubercle and by having a sigmoid inner tarsal fold, whereas Pristimantis olivaceus differs by being smaller and by having dorsal skin shagreen with scattered tubercles. The new species has snout-vent length of 21.8-26.9 mm in males (n = 12) and 28.8 mm in a single female.ResumenDescribimos una nueva especie de

The structure and underlying functions of the majority of the world’s tropical forests have been disrupted by human impacts, but the potential biodiversity and conservation value of regenerating forests is still debated. One review suggests that on average, regenerating tropical forests hold 57% (±2.6%) of primary forest species richness, raising doubt about a viable second chance to conserve biodiversity through rainforest regeneration. Average values, however, likely underestimate the potential benefit to biodiversity and conservation because they are drawn from many studies of short-term regeneration and studies confounded by on-going human disturbance. We suggest that the true potential biodiversity and conservation value of regenerating rainforest could be better assessed in the absence of such factors and present a multi-taxa case study of faunal biodiversity in regenerating tropical forest in lowland Amazonia. We found that biodiversity of this regenerating site was higher than might have been expected, reaching 87% (±3.5%) of primary forest alpha diversity and an average of 83% (±6.7) of species estimated to have occurred in the region before disturbance. Further, the regenerating forest held 37 species of special conservation concern, representing 88% of species of highest conservation importance predicted to exist in primary forest from the region. We conclude that this specific regenerating rainforest has high biodiversity and conservation value, and that whilst preserving primary forest is essential, our results suggest that under a best-case scenario of effective conservation management, high levels of biodiversity can return to heavily disturbed tropical forest ecosystems. © Andrew Whitworth, Roger Downie, Rudolf von May, Jaime Villacampa and Ross MacLeod.

Here we describe the association of Enema pan (F., 1775) (Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae: Oryctini) with bamboo plants in the genus Guadua Kunth (Poaceae: Bambuseae) in a lowland rainforest in southeastern Peru. Mounds at the base of Guadua stems and underground tunnels over one meter long are constructed by adults. Males were found inside these tunnels and in mounds at the base of bamboo stems where they shred and feed on bamboo sap. Males were observed perching at the top of opened mounds only at night, waving their antennae. This study provides the first description of the burrows of E. pan and its association with bamboo plants in southwestern Amazonia.

The potential effect of forest type on the structuring of animal communities in western Amazonia remains poorly understood. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that amphibian species richness, composition and abundance differ across forest types in the lowland rain forest of south-eastern Peru. By using 320 individual transects, we compared the amphibian assemblages across four major forest types (floodplain, terra firme, bamboo and palm swamp) at each of four sites separated by 3.5–105 km. We identified 1967 individuals of 65 species in 11 families and found that a large proportion of the amphibian diversity in this region is attributed to habitat-related beta diversity. Overall, we found that forest type is more important than site in predicting both species composition and abundance. We also found that, when analyses are conducted separately for each forest type and include species abundance data, similarity between assemblages decreases with increasing geographic distance. In contrast to studies that considered species presence/absence but ignored species abundances, our results highlight the importance of including abundance data in the assessment of animal diversity patterns in western Amazonia. We conclude that evaluating community structure across forest types can improve our understanding of diversity patterns in this region.

Until recently, it was assumed that the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) was not widely distributed in warm ecosystems such as lowland tropical rainforests because high environmental temperatures limit its growth. However, several studies have documented Bd infection in lowland rainforest amphibians over the past decade. In addition, a recent study focusing on museum-stored specimens showed that Bd has been present in the lowland Amazon for more than 80 years. These findings lent support to the idea that some lowland rainforest habitats offer suitable environmental conditions for Bd growth, even though most lowland areas may contain suboptimal conditions limiting the pathogen spread and growth. Here, we surveyed four sites in southeast Peru to examine the prevalence and the intensity of infection of Bd in lowland Amazonian amphibians and to fill a gap between two areas where Bd has been present for more than a decade. In one of these “hotspots” of Bd infection, the upper slopes of Manu National Park, several species experienced population declines attributed to Bd epizootics over the past 15 years. We also examined the thermal profile of the main microhabitats used by lowland Amazonian frogs to infer whether these microhabitats offer suitable thermal conditions for Bd growth. We detected Bd in nine lowland frog species and variation in prevalence of infection across years. Our findings suggest that the temperatures in the leaf litter and understory vegetation of some habitats offer suitable conditions for Bd growth.

Our study focused on intraguild predation (IGP) between poison frog tadpoles and predaceous mosquito larvae that use water-filled bamboo internodes as primary microhabitat. We conducted an experiment using artificial pools in southeastern Peru to test the importance of body size of interacting individuals for individual survival. We found that body size strongly affected the outcome of the trophic interaction. We documented a case of symmetric IGP in which members of two phytotelm-breeding species acted as predator or prey depending on their individual and relative body sizes. We found that tadpole relocation by the parent frog may change the relative size of interacting individuals and that priority effects alone cannot be used to predict all outcomes of this interaction.