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High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to a Diode-Array-Detector (HPLC-DAD) is used to investigate samples which were extracted from ancient Egyptian textiles (4th–5th c. AD) of the Museum of Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University. Madder is identified in several samples. According to semi-quantitative results, which are obtained from HPLC peak areas measured at 254 nm, madder that is rich in purpurin and poor in alizarin is identified in samples which were treated (i) only with madder and (ii) with madder and either indigo/woad (Indigofera species and other/Isatis tinctoria L.) or weld (Reseda luteola L.). The madder dye used in these samples could have been originated from Rubia peregrina L. However, the possible use of Rubia tinctorum L. (or other plants of the Rubiaceae family) by the Egyptian dyers cannot be ruled out, particularly if methods were developed by the ancient dyers to affect and control the relative composition of madder dye. The HPLC peak area ratio of alizarin versus purpurin is very high (&gt, 2.2) for samples which were treated with madder (probably originated from R. tinctorum) and a tannin source. Finally, in some samples, only indigoid dyes (indigo/woad) are identified.

High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a diode-array detector (HPLC-DAD) is used to investigate 30 samples which were removed from 27 ancient Egyptian fabrics of the Fill-Trevisiol collection. Attention is focused in this paper on fabrics of the Roman and Byzantine periods, with red and deep violet–blue wool weft threads which are Z-spun. The following dyes are identified in fabrics which date to the Roman period (first–fifth c. ad): mollusc purple, madder, and indigo/woad (Indigofera species and other, Isatis tinctoria L.). The results for the Byzantine (fifth–seventh c. ad) fabrics are richer in terms of identified dyes: apart from the three aforementioned dyes, the use of kermes (Kermes vermilio Planchon) and cochineal is revealed as the two coccid dyes have been detected in six Egyptian–Byzantine fabrics. Moreover, a yellow dye (probably Reseda luteola L.) is identified in one sample. Finally, samples taken from two fabrics, which date to the Islamic period, were dyed using indigo/woad and lac (Kerria lacca, Kerr). Mixing madder and indigo/woad to imitate true purple was a common practice in ancient Egypt and this is confirmed by the HPLC results in several samples. Semi-quantitative results are obtained from the HPLC peak areas and lead to the following conclusions. Madder dyes which were rich or poor in alizarin, compared to purpurin, and could have been therefore obtained from Rubia tinctorum L. and Rubia peregrina L., respectively are detected in Byzantine fabrics. Only alizarin-rich madder dyes are identified in some samples from Roman fabrics, but in some other samples the relative alizarin-to-purpurin ratio cannot be measured with confidence. Cochineal is found in two samples. The biological source of cochineal (Porphyrophora hamelii Brandt) is possible to be chemically identified only in one sample. The HPLC results of the molluscan dye detected in a Roman fabric are compared with the relative compositions of extracts of the three Mediterranean molluscs leading to the speculation that the Roman purple sample was probably dyed using Hexaplex trunculus L. The molluscan dye was furthermore detected in a Byzantine sample where it was combined with madder. Finally, it is reported that the standard (hydrochloric) acid hydrolysis method which is commonly applied to extract dyes from archaeological samples does not have any noticeable effect on the relative composition of the molluscan dye.

Samples removed from funeral figurines, dated the third to the second century BC (Hellenistic period) and found in Macedonia, Greece, are investigated using high-performance liquid chromatography. Two results are reported that provide new insights into ancient polychromy. Firstly, high-performance liquid chromatography results, in combination with historical information, indicate that insect species of cochineal, most probably Porphyrophora hamelii Brandt, was used in Hellenistic objects. Secondly, madder detected in the archaeological samples contains high amounts of purpurin (alizarin is either not detected or detected in trace). This relative composition, which is recorded using the hydrochloric acid method for dyestuff extraction, is consistent with that prepared from wild madder (Rubia peregrina L.), which is a common plant in the Mediterranean region.

In Guatemala 90 % of urban water has a rural origin and 70% of the sources are superficial. We selected three rivers of the upper basin of Sis Icán (Chita, and Sacobá Ixconá-Sis; Pacific coast) to asses drinking water. The watersheds have agriculture and livestock farms, as well as urban and rural populations. Water quality was assessed in the origin and end of each river, in 2012. The variables measured were: NO3, NO2 =, SO4 =, Fe, Cl, Mn, hardness, total coliforms and fecal coliforms. We applied the water pollution index, which is the average of the ratios between observed parameters and regulated standard values. We found statistically significant inputs for chemical and microbiological contaminants (total and fecal coliforms). The level of chemical contaminants does not compromise the quality of water for human consumption, but the biological contamination does. En Guatemala el 90% de las fuentes de abastecimiento delagua urbana son rurales (70% superficiales). Se eligieron tres ríos de la cuenca alta del Sis Icán (Chitá, Ixconá-Sis y Sacobá), vertiente del Pacífico, para evaluar la calidad del agua para consumo humano. En las tres microcuencas hay actividades agropecuarias y poblaciones urbanas y rurales. Se tomaron muestras en dos puntos de cada río, cabeceray desembocadura, en 2012. Las variables medidas fueron: NO3 -, NO2 =, SO4 =, Fe, Cl, Mn, dureza, coliformes totales y coliformes fecales. Se usó como índice de contaminación el promedio de los cocientes entre el valor observado y su respectivo límite máximo permitido. En los tres ríos existen aportes estadísticamente significativos de contaminantesquímicos y coliformes totales y fecales. Aunque los contaminantes químicos no comprometen la calidad del agua para su consumo; los microbiológicos son una amenaza.

A reverse phase liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection method is developed for the characterization of ancient samples of madder. In the past, modifications of the madder chemical composition were carried out by hydrolysing the plant dye precursors in order to increase its red power, the aim of this transformation being to concentrate the red colour of the matter. After extraction of madder dyes in a water-methanol mixture, different anthraquinonic compounds were identified through the chemical constituents present in a garancine sample and in the two madder species growing in the Mediterranean area: Rubia tinctorum and R. peregrina . These two species comprise alizarin, purpurin, lucidin, rubiadin and pseudopurpurin for aglycones and, lucidin primeveroside, ruberythric acid, galiosin and rubiadin primeveroside for heterosidic precursors. These compounds were identified through retention times and UV spectra in comparison with pure standards. Six ancient materials belonging to the collection of the Roure Museum in Avignon (France) and dating from the nineteenth century are characterized as hydrolysed madder (garancine), synthetic alizarin and R. tinctorum roots. A colorimetric study is performed to compare the colour of each sample according to its chemical composition.

The Benaki Museum (Athens, Greece) possesses 50 fragments that, according to its archives, are recorded as having a provenance in the Fustat area. The objects are divided into three groups on the basis of the techniques employed. Most (eight) of the objects included in the present study belong to group A (8th–11th centuries). A few (five) fragments belong to groups B and C, which include objects dated up to the 18th century. The goal is to identify the colouring compounds contained in microsamples removed from the selected Fustat carpet fragments. Identifications are achieved using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with photodiode array detection (PDA). The following compounds are identified repeatedly in many samples: laccaic acid A and other laccaic acids (components of Kerria lacca, Kerr), alizarin, purpurin and rubiadin (madder components), luteolin, apigenin and chrysoeriol (components of Reseda luteola L.), and indigotin and indirubin (components of indigoid dyes). In one sample, the type C compound (marker compound for the identification of soluble redwoods, Caesalpinia trees) is identified. The HPLC profiles collected for the samples in which madder components are detected suggest that most probably Rubia tinctorum L. (and not Rubia peregrina L.) was used during dyeing.

Pre-dispersal seed removal of fleshy fruits and Quercus coccifera (Fagaceae) acorns in a recently burned Mediterranean habitat. The seed fate in early successional habitats can determine plant composition and regeneration capacity after disturbance. Pre-dispersal seed removal has been poorly studied in Mediterranean habitats, especially in burned and logged habitats. We assessed it for two years in pine forests with experiments excluding vertebrates from fleshy fruits (infructescences of Smilax aspera and Rubia peregrina) and acorns (branches of Quercus coccifera). We compared one unburned and one burned area (control). Acorn removal was nil in the burned area while in the unburned habitat seed removal occurred from the beginning of the experiments. It is suggested that the greater vegetation cover in the unburned area shelter rodents from predators and increased their activity. In contrast, reduced cover in the burned area and the occurrence of gnawed acorns on the ground suggest acorn removal by rodents mainly in the post-dispersive stage. Smilax aspera seed removal was slower, and total loss of fruits due to senescence higher, in the burned area. Seed removal appears to be conditioned by interannual variations related to the activity and density of granivores and frugivores, the availability of fleshy fruits, and the maturation of fruits. In post-fire managed areas the role of granivores and frugivores in the regeneration process should be taken into account. La depredación pre-dispersiva de semillas se refiere al ‘ataque’ o la muerte que puede experimentar una semilla en la planta madre o en el suelo junto a ella, antes de ser dispersada. Se evaluó la remoción pre-dispersiva de semillas por parte de vertebrados en tres especies de plantas, dos con frutos carnosos (Smilax aspera y Rubia peregrina) y otra de frutos no carnosos (Quercus coccifera). El estudio se realizó durante dos años en bosques mediterráneos de Cataluña al noreste de la Península Ibérica. Se comparó pinar quemado y sometido a gestión forestal “vs” pinar no quemado (control), mediante la evaluación de ramas con frutos cubiertos con malla metálica (experimentos de exclusión) para impedir el acceso de depredadores y ramas sin protección. La remoción de semillas de Q. cocciferapor parte de vertebrados fue nula en el área quemada durante los dos años del muestreo mientras que en el área no quemada la remoción ocurrió desde el inicio de los experimentos. Se sugiere que la mayor cobertura vegetal en el área no quemada favorece una mayor actividad de roedores gracias a la protección que ésta proporciona ante eventuales depredadores. Por otro lado, en el área quemada, la escasa cobertura vegetal y la presencia de bellotas roídas en el suelo son indicadores de remoción de bellotas por roedores en la etapa post-dispersiva. En el caso de Smilax aspera, la remoción de semillas fue más lenta, y la pérdida total de frutos por senescencia mayor, en el área quemada que en la no quemada. La incidencia de los animales sobre especies de frutos carnosos parece estar condicionada por variaciones interanuales relacionadas con la actividad y presencia de granívoros y frugívoros, la disponibilidad de frutos carnosos y la maduración de las diásporas. En hábitats quemados posteriormente gestionados se recomienda considerar la función de la fauna granívora y frugívora en el proceso de regeneración de estos ambientes doblemente perturbados.

This study aims at testing whether whole plant and aerial metamer traits of Rubia peregrina L., a small clonal shrub, differed in magnitude of response to variations in light, nutrient or water availability, comparing plants at the same age. The second aim was to test whether it was possible to identify a limited set of traits to assess phenotypic plasticity. Almost all traits significantly differed among treatments. These differences were partly due to changes in plant size for two whole plant and one metamer traits. No difference in grand plasticity, calculated with adjusted means correcting for size effect, was found between whole plant and aerial metamer traits. Some traits responded only to one resource (e.g. mean internode length to light) or two resources (e.g. SLA to light and nutrient). Root Mass Ratio was the most responsive of traits showing similar magnitude of plasticity to each of the three resources. These results suggest that (i) no clear difference in plasticity exists between whole plant and aerial metamer traits; (ii) allocation-related traits are of more general value than aerial metamer traits to assess the plasticity of a species.

Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) blocking properties of textiles depend on fibre type, fabric construction and nature of finishing chemicals. Natural dyes can provide vegetable fibres with strong colours if mordants are used. In this study UV protection properties of dyeing extracts from Mediterranean flora ( Helichrysum italicum Roth, Rubia peregrina L., Daphne gnidium L., Lavandula stoechas L., Cynara scolymus L.) were tested in combination with fabrics made of vegetable fibres (cotton and flax) and different types of mordants (potassium alum and chestnuts tannins). Pre- and post-dyeing solutions were analyzed quali-quantitatively by HPLC/DAD/ESI-MS in order to calculate the dye uptake on fabrics during the dyeing process. UVR transmittance of fabrics was measured using a spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating sphere. After the dyeing process only flax fabrics mordanted with alum and dyed with Lavandula and Rubia, and flax fabrics mordanted with tannin and dyed with Rubia and Helychrysum reached the minimum protection level. A very good protection level was reached by flax mordanted with alum and dyed with Helychrysum. Chestnut tannins provided a slight support in phenols uptake for Lavandula and Helichrysum plant dyes with respect to potassium alum, but without an improvement of the fabrics UV protection properties; flax samples dyed with Helichrysum extract showed an improvement in UV protection properties when mordanted with potassium alum instead of tannins. Colour fastness and the persistence of UV protection characteristics were also tested after light/sun exposure and after several washes.

An Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation system for Rubia peregrina L. has been established by co-cultivation of callus cultures or by direct infection of explants with A. rhizogenes LBA 9402 harbouring the binary vector pMON 9703 containing gus and npt-II genes as markers. The putative transformed roots were selected on medium containing kanamycin (25 mg l-1). Antibiotic resistant root clones were subjected to histochemical analysis for the localisation of β-glucuronidase activity. Polymerase chain reaction was used to confirm the presence of gus, npt-II and T L border sequences in the transformed root clones. Spontaneous regeneration of shoots was observed from 30 day-old transgenic roots. Total anthraquinone and alizarin contents of transgenic root cultures were measured by spectrophotometry and by high performance liquid chromatography. The accumulation of total anthraquinones in transformed roots was found to be approximately 2-fold higher than that found in one year-old field grown roots (2.12±0.12 and 1.23±0.12 mg g-1 dry weight, respectively). Alizarin was found to be the major anthraquinone in transformed root cultures and was found to be approximately 3-fold higher than in field grown roots.

In the traditional Sardinian system of medicine, Rubia peregrina L. (Rubiaceae) is reported as an aphrodisiac herb. Since the aphrodisiacs may also have antioxidant and dopaminergic activities, the aim of this study was to study the effect of ethanolic extract of aerial parts of R. peregrina for the scavenging of free DPPH radicals and the inhibition of haloperidol-induced catalepsy in mice and reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia in rats. The extract exhibited significant antioxidant activity in a free radical DPPH assay with IC(50) = 55.6 µg mL(-1), which was very close to IC(50) of ascorbic acid. The extract of R. peregrina (100 and 200 mg kg(-1) intraperitoneally, i.p.) significantly inhibited haloperidol (1 mg kg(-1) i.p.) - induced catalepsy in mice (p 0.01). In rats, the extract (200 mg kg(-1) i.p.) significantly (p 0.01) inhibited the orofacial dyskinesia induced by intraperitoneal administration of reserpine (1 mg kg(-1) on days 1, 3 and 5). This study demonstrates that R. peregrina has antioxidant activity and improves the dopaminergic function. Results therefore justify the development of further experiments to investigate the psychopharmacological profile of R. peregrina.

A rapid, high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method has been developed for the quantitative analysis of alizarin in field grown roots and tissue cultures of Rubia tinctorum and R. peregrina. Alizarin was quantified by HPLC in the presence of trichlorophenol as internal standard using an RP C-18 Nova-pak® column eluted isocratically with methanol: 10% aqueous acetic acid (60:40). The minimum detection limit of alizarin was found to be 10.5 ng. The field grown roots and callus of R. tinctorum contained, respectively, 939.6 (±17.4) and 335.2 (±4.9) μg/g dry weight total alizarin, whilst similar tissues of R. peregrina contained 147.9 (±10.0) and 216.8 (μ0.4) μg/g dry weight total alizarin.

In the traditional system of medicine in Sardinia, Rubia peregrina (RP) is reported as an aphrodisiac herb. Since aphrodisiacs may also have dopaminergic activity, and there can be a reciprocal relationship between dopaminergic and serotonergic functions in the central nervous system, the aim here was to study the effect of the ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of R. peregrina on monoamine-mediated behaviour. The RP (100 and 200 mg kg(-1) intraperitoneally) significantly inhibited haloperidol (1 mg kg(-1) i.p.) induced catalepsy in mice (p 0.01, dopamine-mediated response) lithium sulphate induced head twitches in rats (serotonin-mediated response) and was without effect on clonidine-induced hypothermia in rats (noradrenaline-mediated response). The study concludes that R. peregrina improves the dopaminergic function, diminishes the serotonin-mediated function and is devoid of any effect on the noradrenergic function. The study suggests that we should carry out further experiments to investigate the psychopharmacological profile of R. peregrina.

The isolation, characterisation and quantification of anthraquinones, from hypogeal apparatus of Rubia peregrina L. (Wild Madder) growing wild in Sardinia (Italy) are described. The present study allowed us to perform an easy and fast HPLC analytical method for the detection of anthraquinones in all underground parts of plant. Concentrations of these compounds are variable in the different hypogeal parts before and after hydrolysis of the crude methanolic extracts. Before hydrolysis, we found that pseudopurpurin was 0.18% in rhizomes, alizarin 0.02% in rhizomes and principal stolons, and purpurin 0.56% in stolons of second order. Rubiadin is the major constituent of R. peregrina and reached a higher concentration in principal stolons of up to 4.8%. After hydrolysis, we found some drastic changes: an increase of purpurin in rhizomes (0.04%) and pseudopurpurin in all hypogeal parts (around 0.57%), and a decrease of purpurin in all parts of hypogeal apparatus. The most important change was found in rubiadin concentration, which reached its maximum in principal stolons (11.3%). No anthraquinones were found in the aerial parts of the plant.

Rubia lucida Linnaeus, Systema Naturae, ed. 12, 2: 732. 1767. "Habitat in Majorca. D. Richard." RCN: 892. Lectotype (Natali & Jeanmonod in Jeanmonod, Compl. Prodr. Fl. Corse, Rubiaceae: 167. 2000): Herb. Linn. No. 131.5 (LINN). Current name: Rubia peregrina L. subsp. longifolia (Poir.) O. Bol��s (Rubiaceae)., Published as part of Jarvis, Charlie, 2007, Chapter 7: Linnaean Plant Names and their Types (part R), pp. 785-805 in Order out of Chaos. Linnaean Plant Types and their Types, London :Linnaean Society of London in association with the Natural History Museum on page 800, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.291971

Rubia peregrina Linnaeus, Species Plantarum 1: 109. 1753. "Habitat - - - ������ RCN: 891. Lectotype (Natali & Jeanmonod in Jeanmonod, Compl. Prodr. Fl. Corse, Rubiaceae: 162. 2000): Herb. A. van Royen No. 908.221-523 (L). Current name: Rubia peregrina L. (Rubiaceae)., Published as part of Jarvis, Charlie, 2007, Chapter 7: Linnaean Plant Names and their Types (part R), pp. 785-805 in Order out of Chaos. Linnaean Plant Types and their Types, London :Linnaean Society of London in association with the Natural History Museum on page 800, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.291971

Anthocyanin composition in the berries of Pistacia lentiscus L., Phillyrea latifolia L. and Rubia peregrina L., three wild shrubs which are widely distributed in the Mediterranean region, was determined for the first time. The pigments were extracted from the berries with 0.1% HCl methanol solution, purified on a C-18 solid-phase cartridge and characterized by means of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)–diode array detection (DAD)–mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. The major anthocyanin of P. lentiscus berries has been identified as cyanidin 3- O -glucoside. Delphinidin 3- O -glucoside and cyanidin 3- O -arabinoside have also been found in minor quantities. The major anthocyanin in the extracts of P. latifolia and R. peregrina berries was cyanidin 3- O -rutinoside. Low quantities of cyanidin 3- O -glucoside have also been found. The attractive color and the great abundance of these plants in the Mediterranean area make them a new and very good source of natural pigments and antioxidant agents.

The n -hexane–dichloromethane (1:1) extract of the roots of Onosma argentatum and the methanol extract (partitioned between water and chloroform, ethyl acetate and n -butanol, respectively), of the underground parts (roots and rhizomes) of Rubia peregrina were tested in vitro for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. The highest antioxidant activity (98%) was observed at 0.1% concentration for the roots of O. argentatum. It was 96% at 0.25% concentration on the ethyl acetate fraction of R. peregrina . O. argentatum extract was effective on Staphyloccoccus aureus , Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli. The ethyl acetate and chloroform fractions of R. peregrina were effective on S. aureus and E. coli , respectively. These two species did not have any antifungal activity.

The gene coding for isochorismate synthase (EC 5.4.99.6) was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction fromEscherichia coli, cloned into a binary vector. and mobilised intoAgrobacterium rhizogenes LBA9402 which was used to transformRubia peregrina. Transgenic roots containing bacterial isochorismate synthase cDNA expressed twice as much isochorismate synthase activity (4.88 pkat/mg protein) as the control roots (2.45 pkat/mg protein) after 10 days in culture, and accumulatedca. 20% higher levels of total anthraquinones after 30 days in culture. Whilst the amount of total alizarin (free and bound) in the transgenic roots was 30% higher than in control roots, the level of free alizarin wasca. 85% higher.

The genus Rubia (Rubiaceae) contains a variety of plants that are used for medicinal purposes. The most important species is Rubia tinctorum L. Vernacular names include madder (English); Farberrote, Krapp (German); garance (French); and robbia (Italian). The plant part used medicinally is the root (Rubiae Radix). Other Rubia species of medicinal interest are: Rubia cordifolia L., Rubia sikkimensis Kurz., Rubia peregrina L., Rubia iberica C. Koch, and Rubia petiolaris DC.

Summary: The genetic diversity and clonal structure of weedy and non-weedy populations of a clonal perennial, Rubia peregrina L., were investi gated in a vineyard and in unmanaged habitats of Southern France. The overall genetic diversity of populations was evaluated on a large scale, whereas spatial distribution and clonal structure were studied on a small scale. Isozyme phenotypes were identified using electrophore-sis of three polymorphic enzyme systems. Most isozyme phenotypes were restricted to one population. Intra-population genetic diversity did not differ between populations, whereas clonal structure did. In the vineyard, few clones forming numerous packed ramets and with dis tinct areas were identified, whereas in the unmanaged habitats a higher number of inter mingled clones, forming few widely spaced ramets, were observed. The variability in clonal structure may be linked to different responses of clones to the contrasting environmental condi tions. These results suggest that the colonizing ability of a clonal perennial weed is not necessarily associated with low levels of genetic diversity, but may be related to the variability of the clonal structure. Resume: La diversite genetique et la structure clonale de populations envahissantes et non envahissantes de Rubia peregrina ont eteetudiees dans une vigne et des habitats non cultives situes dans le sud de la France. La diversite genetique globale des populations a eteevaluee a petite echelle alors que la structure des clones a ete determinee a grande echelle. L'etude par electrophorese enzymatique de trois systemes enzymatiques polymorphes a permis l'identifi cation de phenotypes isozymiques. La plupart des phenotypes isozymiques identifies n'ont ete rencontres que dans une seule population. La diversite genetique intra-population ne differe pas entre populations alors qu'il existe des differences de structure clonale entre popula tions. Dans la vigne, un petit nombre de clones comportant une forte densite de ramets ont ete identifies alors qu'en milieu non cultive, un grand nombre de clones entremeles, carac terises par une faible densite de ramets ont ete observes. La variabilite de structure clonale peut etre la consequence de reponses differ entes des clones aux conditions de milieu. Ces resultats permettent de penser que la capacite colonisatrice d'une mauvaise herbe perenne clonale n'est pas forcement liee a un faible niveau de diversite genetique mais peut etre due a une variabilite importante de structure clonale. Zusammenfassung: Die genetische Diversitat and klonale Struktur von Unkrauts und Nicntunkrautpopulationen von Rubia peregrina (Rubiaceae) wurden in einem Weinberg und auf Odland in Sudfrank-reich untersucht. Die allgemeine genetische Diversitat wurde grosmasstablich erfast, wahrend die raumliche Verteilung und die klonale Struktur bis ins einzelne studiert wurden. Es wurden mit Hilfe der Elektro-phorese von 3 polymorphen Enzymsystemen Isozym-Phanotypen identifiziert, von denen die meisten auf eine Population beschrankt waren. Die genetische Diversitat innerhalb der Population unterschied sich nicht zwischen den Populationen, jedoch die klonale Struktur. Im Weinberg bildeten wenige Klone zahlreiche dichtgepackte Rankenbestande von ganz bestimmtem Umfang, wahrend auf dem Odland eine grosere Zahl von Linien untereinander vermischt in wenigen weitverstreuten Bestanden auftrat. Die unterschiedliche genetische Struktur wurde auf die verschiedenen Umweltbedingungen zuruckgefuhrt. Aufgrund der Ergebnisse wurde die Ausbreitungs-fahigkeit eines sich aus verschiedenen Klonen zusammensetzenden ausdauernden Unkrauts nicht notwendigerweise auf eine niedrige genetische Diversitat zuruckgefuhrt, sondern eher auf die Variabilitat der klonalen Struktur.

The examination of the original polychromy of a fourth century B.C. classical Greek marble basin revealed a number of unusual pigments. In addition to natural cinnabar, and Egyptian blue, analysis has shown the presence of wild madder (Rubia peregrina) as the colorant in a purple pigment. This is one of the very few instances in which the use of madder as a colorant in classical painting has been established analytically. The white pigment was found to be neutral lead carbonate (cerussite). The use of this carbonate in painting is extremely rare. The yellow pigment was identified as misy (jarosite). The use of jarosites, iron sulphates, as pigments in painting has not been reported previously.

Stomach contents of 209 dead and droppings of 57 mist-netted migrating or wintering European robins Erithacus rubecula in a Mediterranean area in southern France showed the following seasonal trends: (1) a dominance of invertebrates in early autumn, (2) a dominance of fruits in mid-autumn, (3) acorns being important in midwinter, and (4) a strong dominance of invertebrates at the end of winter and in early spring. The fruits of 23 plant species had been consumed. The most widespread and abundant ones were also the most commonly taken (Rubia peregrina at the regional level and Viburnum tinus at a local one). The size of these fruits ranged from 4 to 12 mm. mostly between 6 and 8 mm. Owing to the amount of fruits consumed and the numbers of birds involved, the European robin is one of the few main dispersers of the numerous fleshy-fruited plant species of the Mediterranean area. Nevertheless, a correct evaluation of its role is only possible within the dense network existing between these plant species and all their dispersers (mainly birds but also mammals).

Rubia peregrina L. is a weed able to survive under extreme hydric and thermal stress conditions. Morphological and physiological studies were conducted in an attempt to understand the survival strategies used by this plant. Its main morphological characteristic is the presence of underground stems, partially red and partially yellow, which form a closely branching underground network. They can be considered to be stolons because of a lack of a thickened endodermis, a typical structure found in rhizomes. The yellow and red dyes are glycosil-alizarines. Ultrastructural and pigment studies showed that the yellow segments have starch-filled plastids and carotenoids, while the red segments have no starch reserves. The yellow structures have a higher water content and a correspondingly higher PEP-case (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase) activity than the other organs. The survival of the plant after hydric and thermal stress is due to several factors: low transpiration with good photosynthesis in the aerial part and the capacity to conserve water and to have large starch reserves in the subterranean portion. The reserves provide energy and substrates and probably also function as gravity receptors (statoliths). The PEP-case activity helps maintain turgor by means of the malate-cation relationship, and the alizarinic pigments perform an antiparasitic role. Under favorable conditions new buds emerge from the underground stems which then cover the infested area with branches and leaves.

Rubia peregrina, spec. nov. 2. Rubia foliis quaternis. Roy. lugdb. 254. Rubia quadrifolia asperrima lucida peregrina. Herm. lugdb. 523. Habitat - - - - ���, Published as part of Linnaeus, Carolus, 1753, Species plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas, Stockholm :Laurentius Salvius on page 109, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3931989

Resumen La depredación pre-dispersiva de semillas se refiere al 'ataque' o la muerte que puede experimentar una semilla en la planta madre o en el suelo junto a ella, antes de ser dispersada. Se evaluó la remoción pre-dispersiva de semillas por parte de vertebrados en tres especies de plantas, dos con frutos carnosos (Smilax aspera y Rubia peregrina) y otra de frutos no carnosos (Quercus coccifera). El estudio se realizó durante dos años en bosques mediterráneos de Cataluña al noreste de la Península Ibérica. Se comparó pinar quemado y sometido a gestión forestal "vs" pinar no quemado (control), mediante la evalua ción de ramas con frutos cubiertos con malla metálica (experimentos de exclusión) para impedir el acceso de depredadores y ramas sin pro tección. La remoción de semillas de Q. coccifera por parte de vertebra dos fue nula en el área quemada durante los dos años del muestreo mientras que en el área no quemada la remoción ocurrió desde el inicio de los experimentos. Se sugiere que la mayor cobertura vegetal en el área no quemada favorece una mayor actividad de roedores gracias a la protección que ésta proporciona ante eventuales depredadores. Por otro lado, en el área quemada, la escasa cobertura vegetal y la pre sencia de bellotas roídas en el suelo son indicadores de remoción de bellotas por roedores en la etapa post-dispersiva. En el caso de Smilax aspera, la remoción de semillas fue más lenta, y la pérdida total de fru tos por senescencia mayor, en el área quemada que en la no quemada. La incidencia de los animales sobre especies de frutos carnosos parece estar condicionada por variaciones interanuales relacionadas con la ac tividad y presencia de granívoros y frugívoros, la disponibilidad de fru tos carnosos y la maduración de las diásporas. En hábitats quemados posteriormente gestionados se recomienda considerar la función de la fauna granívora y frugívora en el proceso de regeneración de estos ambientes doblemente perturbados. AbstractThe seed fate in early successional habitats can determine plant composition and regeneration capacity after disturbance. Pre-dispersal seed removal has been poorly studied in Mediterranean habitats, especially in burned and logged habitats. We assessed it for two years in pine forests with experiments excluding vertebrates from fleshy fruits (infructescences of Smilax áspera and Rubia peregrina) and acorns (branches of Quercus coccifera). We compared one unburned and one burned area (control). Acorn removal was nil in the burned area while in the unburned habitat seed removal occurred from the beginning of the experiments. It is suggested that the greater vegeta-tion cover in the unburned area shelter rodents from predators and in-creased their activity. In contrast, reduced cover in the burned area and the occurrence of gnawed acorns on the ground suggest acorn remov al by rodents mainly in the post-dispersive stage. Smilax aspera seed removal was slower, and total loss of fruits due to senescence higher, in the burned area. Seed removal appears to be conditioned by inter-annual variations related to the activity and density of granivores and frugivores, the availability of fleshy fruits, and the maturation of fruits. In post-fire managed areas the role of granivores and frugivores in the regeneration process should be taken into account.