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Maintaining connectivity in landscapes where natural ecosystems are quickly replaced by human land-uses is a challenge. To reduce the effects of habitat loss, ecological corridors have been proposed as a relevant tool for landscape planning. We aimed to develop a spatial model to identify and prioritize riparian corridors to improve landscape connectivity. The model considers the effect of the land-use/cover types and remaining forests on the movement capacity of a focal species sensitive to fragmentation. Since landscape elements act as barriers or promoters to ecological fluxes, suitability values were set according to the element’s ability in providing habitat. The model recognizes the effect of the contact between associated elements along the riparian corridor’s width and length and corrects their suitability. These procedures enabled the calculation of the Utility Factor, resulting in a measure of the quality of the corridor. The results show that the model assists the identification of the riparian corridor’s sections where connectivity is hampered and management efforts are required to maintain landscape connectivity. In addition, it can be applied to select the corridors dominated by large forests, which could be designed for conservation purposes. The two study cases evidence that the model is flexible, adjustable to distinct landscapes, and the decision-maker’s objectives. We concluded that the proposed strategy helps decision-makers to prioritize the territories for managing or preserving connectivity. Finally, the method provides quantitative information that would not be perceived by just interpreting land-use/cover maps.

Neighbouring forests constitute biological sources that enable the succession from species-poor systems, such as tree-plantings, to highly diverse forests. However, old forest patches are becoming rare in tropical agricultural landscapes. We were interested in if, and how, spontaneous regeneration under tree-plantings reflects the age and the amount of the neighbouring forest cover. We anticipated that older forests promote a compositionally broader recovery in neighbouring tree-plantings, because older forests likely include disturbance-sensitive species, particularly within least deforested landscapes. We studied twenty-seven restoration sites implemented as tree-plantings in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We quantified the effects of age and amount of neighbouring forest cover on structural and compositional characteristics of the regeneration community (dbh

Ecological restoration has received increasing attention as international agreements have set ambitious goals to mitigate environmental change and reshape degraded landscapes. However, current restoration activities sometimes remain modest in their success. In particular, tropical forest restoration has had mixed outcomes with variable cost-efficiency. Here, we address the need for taking into account the spatial context of restoration to inform policy initiatives that aim to improve the ecological and economic effectiveness of restoration. We accessed the spatial distribution of relevant characteristics for ecological restoration in an emblematic heavily degraded tropical region: Sao Paulo state, Brazil. We compared statewide patterns in soil erosion risk, distance to remnant habitat, and agricultural land use, to their characteristics in land voluntarily offered for active restoration. Based on this comparison, active restoration is likely to take place through small, low-priced parcels of land, usually in the context of substantial soil erosion risk and exacerbated deforestation. Restoration ecology predicts the need for expensive actions to assist a limited recovery process in such highly degraded conditions. This general pattern also suggests the necessity for long-term commitment among a broad set of social actors, combined to mitigation of degradation in adjacent remnants and agricultural lands. Active restoration may be complemented by spontaneous regeneration in areas with less adverse conditions. Policy makers therefore need to consider the complementarity of lands voluntarily offered for restoration, and land made available for restoration through other mechanisms. Our findings, likely applicable to other densely populated tropical regions, suggest that land-use policies need to address drivers of restoration success at a fine-scale to enable effective strategies. We suggest this can be achieved by spatial analyses that incorporate biophysical features that determine restoration opportunities and the likelihood of success.

Questions: We studied the importance of soil properties and neighbouring forest cover in affecting plant community biomass and assembly during the tropical forest restoration process. We also investigated how compositional responses depended on traits expected to influence individual success. Location: Forest restoration sites across anthropogenic grasslands in mixed use agricultural watersheds, eastern Sao Paulo state, Brazil. Methods: We identified and measured all woody individuals (DBH >= 5 cm) in four 200-m(2) plots per site. Then we translated these measurements into above-ground biomass (AGB), and related AGB variability to neighbouring forest cover, soil texture and chemical fertility using mixed effect models. We assessed the effect of these predictors on different species groups, arranged according to variation in wood density, tree height or habitat selectivity, through multivariate abundance models. Results: GB ranged between 0 and 104.7 t/ha (median of 10.4 t/ha), with high variation within, as well as between, watersheds. Sand percentage, forest cover and the interaction between soil nutrient concentrations and sand percentage were good predictors of measured AGB. The most parsimonious model projected a seven growing seasons AGB recovery of 70.90 t/ha, when a site is on fertile soils with 10% sand and surrounded by forest cover of 50%. In contrast, only 5.24 t/ha is predicted on acidic-poor soils with 67% sand and 0% forest cover. Increasing forest cover favoured smaller trees and habitat generalists while increasing sand percentage inhibited taller species and forest specialists. Sand percentage constrained softwoods in fertile soils. Conclusion: Our results confirm that the likelihood of restoration to pre-disturbance conditions is constrained in contexts of higher degradation, such as when agricultural use adversely affects soil properties and/or motivates extreme deforestation. Lower AGB found on sandy soils suggests that forest recovery is sensitive to local drought intensification. Given regional projections for extended dry seasons, restoration approaches could consider targeting alternative reference states, rather than historical/undisturbed ones, under highly altered environments, while aiming to improve soil and microclimate conditions to allow moist tropical forest recovery where feasible.

The history of deforestation within the Brazilian savanna shaped landscapes with anthropic matrices, and silviculture is one of them. Commercial forest management strongly acts on this biome, affecting natural areas of “cerradao”, a forest physiognomy. The loss of this ecosystem decreases the regional potential of carbon capturing and stocking by native plants, an ecological function that contributes to climate change mitigation, recognized as a regulating ecosystem service. On the other hand, human activities which guarantee the supply of provisioning services, such as commercial forests, are important for regional socioeconomic sustainability. Thus, keeping a balanced supply of both services without exceeding their thresholds brings benefits, avoiding irreversible losses for the human society. With this in mind, we aimed to evaluate the capacity of savanna landscapes in contributing to climate regulation by carbon sequestration from natural forests and generating financial incomes from silvicultural activity, in territories with different proportions of natural and commercial forest cover. We define thresholds and tradeoffs between the supply of ecosystem services and cellulose markets. Also, we assessed the role of compositional and structural attributes of the native forests on carbon stock results. The cerradao presents an average aboveground carbon (AGC) stock of 40 MgC.ha−1, while the carbon stock in Eucalyptus plantings with 6–8 years is almost twice this value, despite this contribution be temporary in the landscape. The benefits from native and commercial forests are equivalent in watersheds presenting at least 55% of their territories covered by native forests. The condition for sustaining carbon ecosystem services and still generating financial gains with the same relative value corresponds to CO2 sequestration equal to 90.6 Mg.ha−1 and a gross income of 20.8 × 103 US$ per hectare of Eucalyptus planted for cellulose pulp. The structural features of the native forest remnants on the AGC stock were more effective than compositional attributes, being strongly correlated with the dominance of certain species.

Water resources have been widely cited as a prime example of ecosystem services (ES), especially when the issue is valuation. Because of the importance of water ecosystem services (ESw), they are being effectively evaluated in at least three aspects: clarity about the type of valuation employed; adoption of a strong theoretical basis guided by ecological knowledge; and the inclusion of analytical elements that ensure social control and direction in decision making. Our study sought to determine whether these prerogatives are actually relevant, by assessing the emphasis in the valuation of ESw among ES publications. From the literature, we define five types of valuation and five major theoretical principles that can be broken down into 14 indicators that we used in our analysis of ESw studies. Our results indicated that the current knowledge about ESw carry the false impression that the ecosystem services valuation is sufficiently consolidated to support decisions about payments for ESw.

Landscape connectivity can be assessed based on the physical connection (structural connectivity) or the maintenance of flow among habitats depending on the species (functional connectivity). The lack of empirical data on the dispersal capacity of species can lead to the use of simple structural measures. Comparisons between these approaches can improve decision-making processes for the conservation or restoration of habitats in fragmented landscapes, such as the Cerrado biome. This study aimed to understand the correspondence between the measures of landscape structural and functional connectivity for Cerrado plants. Three landscapes with cerrad&atilde, o patches in a pasture matrix were selected for the application of these metrics based on the functional connectivity of four profiles of plant dispersal capacity. The results showed divergent interpretations between the measures of landscape structural and functional connectivity, indicating that the assessment of biodiversity conservation and landscape connectivity is dependent on the set of metrics chosen. Structurally, the studied landscapes had the same number of cerrad&atilde, o patches but varied in optimal resource availability, isolation, heterogeneity, and aggregation. Functional connectivity was low for all profiles (based on the integral index of connectivity&mdash, IIC) and null for species with a low dispersal capacity (based on the connectance index&mdash, CONNECT), indicating that species with a medium- to long-distance dispersal capacity may be less affected by the history of losses and fragmentation of the Cerrado in the pasture matrix. The functional connectivity metrics used allowed a more robust analysis and, apparently, better reflected reality, but the lack of empirical data on dispersal capacity and the difficulty in choosing an indicator organism can limit their use in the management and planning of conservation and restoration areas.

Assessing the consequences of human exploitation at different intensities on ecosystem services is important in the Brazilian Araucaria Forest biome, because it has been drastically reduced, mainly due to the exploitation of Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze for wood. The inclusion of A. angustifolia on the list of Brazilian endangered plant species places the harvesting of Araucaria nuts as the most important provisioning service in this type of ecosystem. The aim of this study was to determine the trade-offs related to provisioning, supporting and regulating ecosystem services in the Araucaria Forest at different intensities of nut harvesting, by addressing ecosystem attributes that assure forest sustainability. Six indicators of ecosystem services were evaluated in harvested and non-harvested areas in Brazilian Araucaria Forest fragments. Trade-offs were examined under five harvesting intensities. The supporting services were the most sensitive to the harvesting intensity. The results indicate that a harvesting threshold of between 60% and 85% of the nuts produced guarantees forest sustainability. In addition, areas under higher harvesting intensities provide more short-term benefit services at the local scale that can be included in the formal market.EDITED BY John Parrotta EDITED BY John Parrotta

RESUMO Os efeitos de borda em fragmentos de floresta constituem a consequência mais significativa da fragmentação promovida pelos usos da terra. Para compreendê-los e manejá-los é necessário um conhecimento mais preciso sobre as influências exercidas pelas diferentes tipologias de uso sobre as fronteiras dos fragmentos florestais. Nessa direção, este estudo identificou e estabeleceu a extensão de efeitos de borda em um fragmento de floresta em relação a diferentes vizinhanças. O trabalho foi realizado na Reserva Florestal do Morro Grande - SP e seu entorno. A região foi mapeada e foram selecionadas três tipologias para estudo dos respectivos efeitos de borda: florestal, urbana e agrícola. A qualificação e a extensão dos efeitos de borda foram obtidas por meio do levantamento em campo de indicadores dos efeitos em transecções de 100 metros, avaliados por análise de variância. O grupo de indicadores abióticos apresentou predomínio de efeitos de borda em profundidades menores que 70 m e foi mais expressivo quando a vizinhança era a ocupação urbana. O grupo de indicadores bióticos se estendeu além dos 100 m e os efeitos foram mais intensos na tipologia agrícola. Pelo método adotado, os melhores parâmetros para análise dos efeitos de borda foram temperatura e diâmetro das árvores. ABSTRACT The edge effects in forest fragments are one of the more significant consequences of the fragmentation promoted by land uses. To understand and manage them we need accurate knowledge about the influences in different use types on the borders of the forest fragments. In this sense, this study has identified the extent of edge effects in a forest fragment in relation to different neighborhoods. The study was conducted in a Forest Reserve (Reserva Florestal do Morro Grande, SP) and its surroundings. The area was mapped and three types were selected to study their edge effects: forest, urban and agricultural areas. The classification and the extent of the edge effects were obtained through a field survey of border indicators in 100 meters from border to interior. The data were evaluated by analysis of variance. The indicators showed a predominance of abiotic edge effects at depths less than 70m. This effect was more significant when the neighborhood was an urban area. The group of biotic indicators extended beyond the 100 meters and the effects were more intense in an agricultural area. By the method adopted, the best parameters for the analysis of edge effects were temperature and diameter of trees.

We argue that the history of a landscape and the driving forces acting in each of its sectors account for the recent condition of its structure and ecological functions, which, in turn, can be translated into the availability of ecosystem services. Therefore, the present study investigated the historical relationship between the forces that have induced changes in the use and settlement of the island of Sao Sebastiao over five centuries, their resulting impacts and their influences on the availability of regulation, supply, recreation and cultural ecosystem services. We worked with a broad historical survey and maps of land use and natural vegetation from different time periods. Thus, although the historical data were not accurate about the exact areas used for agriculture or forest we could infer about losses and replacement of ecosystem services. Moreover, we observed the occurrence of three driving forces that alternated in intensity and importance over time, leading to forest gains and losses that especially led to the degradation of regulation services.

In many areas of the world, groups of people have attempted to create urban landscapes that follow the principles of environmental sustainability. To this end, groups have devised alternative models, such as ecovillages, where low-impact handling is used and a way of life different from that of large population centers is adopted. Although these villages exist, their efficiency in the conservation of natural resources has not been effectively evaluated. This study evaluated the practices used by two Brazilian ecovillages to conserve water resources to assess whether this new concept of living is indeed successful in meeting sustainability goals. We selected 25 indicators of water sustainability, and using the compromise programming method, we quantified the distance between those landscapes self-referenced as sustainable and an ideal hypothetical scenario. We also interpreted the communities perceptions using the distance between the current situations and the envisioned scenario. We concluded that both ecovillage are far from technically ideal scenario, but the communities have a strong sense of their limitations in implementing water resources conservation. The communities attributed this fact primarily to deficiencies in the shared management.

The conversion of tropical forests to human land-use threatens biodiversity conservation and the delivery of many ecosystem services, especially water-related ecosystem services. In these landscapes, many investments have been made to restore native forests and recover hydrological processes lost by deforestation. Rainfall interception is a key hydrological process for water-related ecosystem services’ maintenance, which plays an important role in runoff, infiltration, erosion control, and flood regulation. We evaluated rainfall interception over a 1-year period in eight restoration sites within the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We used the interception function as an indicator of water dynamics recovery in actively restored forests. Monthly rainfall interception was measured by 80 interceptometers distributed within the sites (10/site), and 24 pluviometers were installed in open fields (3/site) close to the restoration sites to collect total precipitation (P) incidents over the sites. We also measured plant community attributes involved in the interception process (density, basal area, tree species richness, and the ratio of deciduous plants). The average rainfall interception reached 21.4 ± 3.9%, but a significant variability was observed among sites. Results showed that 65% of the monthly interception collected is below 30 mm.month−1. Basal area and species richness were forest attributes positively correlated to each other and the most important in the interception process. The results show that actively restored forests can reestablish rainfall interception rates similar to those of mature tropical forests in the short term (10 years). In addition, more time or complementary interventions are needed for plant communities to reach expected attributes’ values. Self-organized maps analysis showed a negative relationship between interception and the proportion of deciduous plant individuals. We present information to support land-use policy decisions, as the results revealed insights regarding the effects on the water cycle that may result from increasing forest cover. We argue that restoring ecosystem services should be the main goal of restoration programs and determining if hydrological processes are being effectively recovered by restoration actions is crucial for achieving water sustainability.

In environmental zoning territorial units are delimited that, for definition of guidelines, they are considered homogeneous. However, it is recognized that there is a variability interns not acted in map, matter to each one of them, be in the composition, arrangement or environmental function. This study has as objective to present a methodological strategy for obtaining of the areas starting from the integration of spacing environmental data with quantitative information about the space relationships among those data, in way to determine the degree of homogeneity of the sampling area. A base of data was used in System of Geographical Information, associated to techniques of analysis of hierarchical grouping of Ward and correspondence analysis. The case study was the hydrographic basin of the high river Taquari (MS/MT). For the applied method, to guarantee the expression of 90% (R2 = 0,90) of the variability of the information of the study area they were determinate 8 areas. In the area most homogeneous variability it interns measured by the inertia was of 4,2, while in the less homogeneous area the inertia was of 10,8. They were also determinate the variables with larger contribution in the definition of the unit, as well as their similarities and the hierarchy among areas.

Environmental planning must determine management practices for a given territory based on the landscape processes that have occurred over time and their consequences. Therefore, environmental planning decisions must be based on strong empirical evidence that can be easily understood by all involved parties. Several studies have highlighted the methodological deficiencies that occur when obtaining and interpreting such issues, particularly in heterogeneous landscapes with complex interactions. In this paper, we evaluated two methodological approaches that are used in management planning, land use/cover change (LUCC) and mosaic change (MC) to compare their effectiveness and suitability for supporting decision-making. We applied these methods to the coastal landscape of Sao Sebastiao Island, Brazil, which has undergone many changes in the last 50 years. For two years, land use/cover maps were produced using GIS and assessed according to changes in landscape elements (LUCC) and boundaries (MC). Overall, the LUCC failed to identify sets with similar structural heterogeneities in the landscape. However, the LUCC is easier for stakeholders to understand and apply than the MC. The MC method better presented the evolution of the relationship between the landscape elements and heterogeneity.

The aim of this study is to identify the current conservation status of five forested watersheds which have been under different human pressures throughout history of São Sebastião Island to assess relations between pressures which have occurred in the past and the current environmental quality. Through maps of land use, landscape metrics, and the development of a forest conservation index, it was possible to identify in watersheds the greater landscape fragmentation, implications on quantity and quality of available habitat, and effects of boundaries., El objetivo de este estudio es identificar el estado de conservación de cinco cuencas en diferentes fases evolutivas en la isla de São Sebastião (SP) de manera que se pueda evaluar las relaciones entre las presiones pretéritas y la calidad del medio ambiente actual. A través de mapas de uso del suelo, las medidas del paisaje y el desarrollo de un índice de conservación de bosques fue posible identificar en las cuencas la mayor fragmentación del paisaje, las implicaciones sobre cantidad y calidad del hábitat disponible, y los efectos de las fronteras.

It is expected that the application of a restrictive legal instrument would be an important barrier to human pressures on protected areas in Brazil. One aspect that remains to be determined is whether the applied restrictions will be related to the quality of scenarios at the borders of protected areas. The objective of this work was to analyze the capacity for minimizing the impacts on two protected areas and to identify the effective function of the barrier imposed by an environmental legal border. The borders of two protected areas, the Despraiado Sustainable Development Reserve and the Jureia-Itatins State Ecological Station, as well as the corresponding buffer zone were studied. The historical evolution of the land cover/land use of these regions was analyzed by dividing the regions into 900 m2 hexagonal units. The scenarios for the years 1962, 1980 and 2007 were overlaid for each hexagon. The hexagons were classified according to the possible effects of conservation, and the results were quantified in terms of the frequency of land use and ecological flows. A simulation of future land use in 2028 was performed using the Kappa index, Markov chain modeling, multi-criteria analysis and cellular automata modeling. Based on the trend for the last 45 years, a very dynamic interaction at the legal boundaries was identified; in certain cases, either conservation or degradation were stimulated, and the intended objectives of legal environmental measures were never fulfilled. The simulation showed that by 2028, the frontiers of these protected areas will retain less than 10% of the natural vegetation cover, and 43% of this area will be covered with banana plantations.

Environmental planning must define criteria that permit comparisons among past landscapes and future scenarios that are easily understood by all of the social agents involved in the shared planning decision. The present study evaluated the ecological effects of alternative implementations of one residential housing development proposed by agents on protected areas of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Based on these agents’ proposals, this study created five future scenarios and compared these with three historic landscapes and an expected legally protected landscape. The comparison was based on certain criteria that determine forest conservation value. The metrics we used included resource availability, potential connectivity, and forest fragmentation tendency. Our results highlight the importance of considering the compliance map with legal expectation as a reference, as well as the limitations of environmental laws for the purpose of forest conservation. We conclude that housing development maintains the landscape connectivity and may not result in substantial forest loss in area. In contrast, regardless of the proposed future scenario, the housing development does not guarantee optimum resource availability, and metric values are lower than in historic landscapes.

We evaluated changes in the Atlantic Forest landscape over the last 40 years based on changes in boundaries and mosaics, including the hypothetical landscape resulting from the application of Brazilian laws for forest protection. Mosaics were identified as sets of land-use patches with a similar pattern of boundaries. Landscapes of different years, therefore, can be distinguished by differences in mosaics. We developed a technique to identify boundaries between patches from land-use maps using ArcGis® and to build the patch x boundary matrix required for mosaic identification by means of a factorial and cluster analysis. The mosaics were characterized by some key uses as well as by their boundaries with other land uses. The mosaics were scored for forest conservation according to five issues: landscape permeability, cover, availability, quality, and fragmentation of forest. The values were based on land use and boundary patterns. Although Brazilian laws regarding forest protection have promoted conservation and the hypothetical legal landscape has presented the highest forest habitat availability, this expansion perpetuates a boundary pattern that complicates conservation and management, thus increasing the pressure on forest patches and favoring the further fragmentation of protected forest patches. These conclusions cannot be reached by simply recording changes in land uses.

The Brazilian state has demonstrated an interest in preserving the natural heritage by expanding Brazil's system of protected areas (PAs), well-known internationally. Even so, as in other countries, despite a growing number of conservation initiatives, the state often opts to change a PA's management category into one less restrictive due to the population conflicts regarding to the land use. However, management category changes occur without there being any evaluation of the effects of the subsequent legal status, that is, of its ability to produce the anticipated result, to enable better direction of public policies and conservation initiatives. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to measure the conservation success of a PA, comparing its land use and cover change over time in different management categories. The study area was the Despraiado region (Sao Paulo, Brazil), which belonged to three PA management categories over 45 years and was subject to environmental protection under various legal instruments. The effectiveness of legal protection was interpreted by spatial changes in land use, or land use and cover changes, as well as crop rotation indices and analysis of the temporal stability of the landscape. We confirmed that the legal environmental restrictions were never fully complied with and the landscape observed remained distant from its conservation scenario proposed, independently of the PA management category and despite the long process of establishment as an area to be protected.

Environmental planning decisions depend on an understanding of how the preservation or degradation process has progressed through time, and consequently, on how to define strategies that will be conducive to environmental conservation. The landscape ecology literature has been addressing methodological deficiencies regarding landscape evaluation and interpretation, mainly with respect to express heterogeneity, where it is difficult to recognize the matrix through landscape configuration. We argue that a better representation of the spatio-temporal landscape occurs integrating driving forces that are capable of initiating and perpetuating changes in the landscape, modeling the complex geometric pattern inherent in landscape structure, and defining the change vectors in a continuum of scales. The aim of this study is to develop a methodology that allows the identification of structure patterns resulting from the relation among driving forces, change vectors and evolutive phases in a coastal landscape. This paper, then, considers four factors: driving forces identified through the construction of a historical survey; land use and cover maps (LUCC) at broad scale, cross tabulation, flux diagram, and dominance index; the landscape evolution phases identified using LUCC and driving forces; and landscape cracking and change-vectors defined at fine scale using conservation and degradation indexes. This strategy reveals the existence of specific geometric patterns and change vectors for each evolution phase of the landscape. It also allows the identification of sites where management actions should be directed toward helping decision makers.

Scientists recognize the importance of studying cumulative environmental effects as stressors, as there are countless stressors in human and technological development. However, existing studies acknowledge methodological limitations of measuring effects that combine and accumulate over time, making it difficult to interpret the processes leading to a given current landscape. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a method that would make it possible to define the sequence of human actions and to measure relationships between type, intensity and distribution of cumulative effects by analyzing the past and present composition of the landscape. The method is based on the identification of the cumulative value of effects in landscape units of 900 m 2 . The chronosequence of human activities triggering accumulated effects was obtained from superimposed maps and the magnitude of effects was evaluated using area graphs. The method proposed was applied in a study area, resulting in a map that clearly showed the distribution and synergy of cumulative effects in the study area.

The coastal regions of Brazil have lost most of their distinct characteristics due to an intense, diverse, and long history of land use. The current scenario is the result of successive changes which have taken place since the colonization of Brazil. These changes should be taken into account in environmental planning since the decisions about the future depend on the understanding of past changes. In this regard, the aim of this study was to identify and quantify the spatio-temporal changes in land use in a coastal region, using principles of landscape ecology and scenario construction. The case study was the São Sebastião Island, divided into 61 watersheds, off the northern coast of São Paulo State (Brazil). The study involved the development and application of a methodology to interpret the historical dynamics of the island. The driving forces were identified and indexes of change were calculated to define the phases of occupation of the island. Five phases of occupation of the coastal landscape were mapped: preservation, conservation, regeneration, exploitation and urbanization. These phases represent a pattern of internal heterogeneity, sometimes positive (environmental conservation), and sometimes negative (environmental degradation).As regiões costeiras brasileiras encontram-se altamente descaracterizadas devido ao intenso, diversificado e prolongado uso da terra ao longo de sua história. O cenário hoje observado é produto do acúmulo de interferências que vem ocorrendo desde a colonização. Os planejamentos ambientais devem considerar essa questão, uma vez que as decisões sobre o futuro dependem da compreensão dessas mudanças do passado. Neste caminho, o objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar, quantificar e indicar as variações espaços-temporais de uso da terra numa paisagem costeira a partir dos princípios da ecologia de paisagem e da modelagem para construção de cenários. O estudo de caso foi a Ilha de São Sebastião, Litoral Norte do Estado de São Paulo. Para tanto, foi desenvolvida e aplicada uma metodologia para a construção da trajetória histórica por meio da identificação de forças indutoras e aplicação de índices de mudanças que permitiram a definição de fases de ocupação da Ilha. Foram mapeadas nesse território cinco fases de ocupação histórica da paisagem costeira: preservação, conservação, regeneração, exploração e urbanização. Essas fases representam um padrão de heterogeneidade interna, ora como saldo positivo (conservação ambiental), ora como saldo negativo (degradação ambiental) dentro de 61 unidades de análise, definida pelas bacias hidrográficas presentes na Ilha.

The selection of forest fragments for conservation is usually based on spatial parameters as forest size and canopy integrity. This strategy assumes that chosen fragments present high conservation status, ensuring biodiversity and ecological functions. We argue that a well-preserved forest fragment that remains connected by the landscape structure, does not necessarily hold attributes that ensure the presence of keystone species. We also discuss that the presence of keystone species does not always mean that it has the best conditions for its occurrence and maintenance. We developed a model to select areas in forest landscapes to be prioritized for protection based on suitability curves that unify and compare spatial indicators of three categories: forest fragment quality, landscape quality, and environmental conditions for the occurrence of a keystone species. We use a case study to compare different suitability degrees for Euterpe edulis presence, considered an important functional element in Atlantic Forest (Sao Paulo, Brazil) landscapes and a forest resource for local people. The results show that the identification of medium or advanced stage fragments as singular indicator of forest quality does not guarantee the existence or maintenance of this keystone species. Even in some well-preserved forest fragments, connected to others and with palm presence, the reverse J-shaped distribution of the population size structure is not sustained and these forests continue to be threatened due to human disturbances.

É comum em Unidades de Conservação brasileiras que o transporte ocorra preferencialmente pelos rios, com vias para o deslocamento da população local, comunicação entre comunidades tradicionais, condução de turistas e fiscalização. São verdadeiras “trilhas náuticas”, cujas atividades estão ligadas à disponibilidade de serviços ecossistêmicos, mas que podem resultar em impactos ambientais maiores que os próprios caminhos terrestres. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o balanço entre a conservação e a degradação de corredores fluviais de uma área de proteção ambiental integral, por meio da análise das funções humanas, da oferta de serviços ecossistêmicos e das pressões e impactos humanos conseqüentes da exploração dos recursos disponíveis. Para tanto, foi desenvolvida e aplicada uma metodologia que avaliou sete funções de uso dos cursos fluviais, suas interfaces com os serviços ecossistêmicos oferecidos pelas trilhas náuticas e 21 indicadores de impactos. Foram estudadas 7 trilhas náuticas dentro da Estação Ecológica de Juréia-Itatins (SP). Concluiu-se que a utilização dos serviços ecossistêmicos oferecidos pelos rios da EEJI na forma de trilhas náuticas estásobrecarregada, em virtude da sobreposição de funções e freqüência de uso, cujo resultado é a degradação dos recursos naturais, principalmente junto as margens dos rios. Foram registrados 351 impactos que impedem o cumprimento dos objetivos principais de uma Estação Ecológica, que é manter serviços de regulação e de suporte.

Socio-environmental certification uses evaluation criteria to promote the conservation of the natural environment and landscape connectivity, with the aim of constructing agricultural landscapes more suitable for biodiversity conservation. To test this, we examine whether socio-environmental certification of Brazilian coffee farms contributes to local conservation, particularly in terms of deforestation control, habitat protection and regeneration, and connectivity. The analysis compared changes in landscape structure and connectivity in certified farms before (1995–2002) and after nine years from the beginning of the certification process (2002–2011), using as a reference the surrounding landscape and a control group of non-certified farms. To quantify changes in landscape connectivity we used probabilistic indices of functional connectivity based on graph theory, and two species of terrestrial mammals with contrasting dispersal capacities and habitat requirements: Priodontes maximus (giant armadillo) and Marmosops incanus (gray slender mouse opossum). Our results show that changes in the last decade have been subtle, but that certified farms differ from surrounding areas for the greater deforestation control and habitat availability for both land cover types, and for the greater connectivity for P. maximus. The difference between certified and non-certified farms is not clear-cut, however, we have evidence that the certified farms contributed more than the surrounding areas to the conservation of the studied species when the balance of gains and losses of connectivity is considered. The subtle differences in temporal changes and groups might be partially explained by the fact that certified farms already had a different conservation profile at the beginning of the certification process. Despite the limitations in the sampling size (small number) and time scale (only nine years after certification) which may hinders the detection of certification effects, our findings indicate that certification was important in controlling deforestation and the conversion of new natural areas to agricultural lands.

Riparian ecosystems, often represented by riparian forests (RFs), are diverse systems which are being endangered primarily from the expansion of agricultural land and are protected by legislation in recognition of their role in preserving water resources. The methods usually employed to recommend maintenance or reclamation of RFs fail in not considering the full costs and benefits. In agroecosystems, the preservation of RFs will result in a permanent improvement in freshwater quality, but will also remove economically attractive space from crop production. This paper describes the principles of a procedure which uses data that is usually available (topographic maps, land use and soil data) to determine the optimal RF width, quantitatively and on a geo-referenced basis. An example, based on land-use scenarios representative of southeast Brazil is used to illustrate the suggested framework. Because of the simultaneous analysis of variables related to target effects on water quality, the effectiveness of the RF in retaining sediments and the forests capability for developing the multifunctional aspects of a riparian ecosystem could be considered. For the case study, the optimal RF width was calculated as 52 m, resulting in a sediment yield value of 12 Mg ha −1 yr −1 and a retention of 54% of the total amount of sediments. This RF width was wider and more efficient if compared with the official legal recommendation of 30 m. The decision process is logically based and the equations clearly described, and thus can be incorporated in Geographic Information Systems.

Strictly Protected Areas and riparian forests in Brazil are rarely large enough or connected enough to maintain viable populations of carnivores and animal movement over time, but these characteristics are fundamental for species conservation as they prevent the extinction of isolated animal populations. Therefore, the need to maintain connectivity for these species in human-dominated Atlantic landscapes is critical. In this study, we evaluated the landscape connectivity for large carnivores (cougar and jaguar) among the Strictly Protected Areas in the Atlantic Forest, evaluated the efficiency of the Mosaics of Protected Areas linked to land uses in promoting landscape connectivity, identified the critical habitat connections, and predicted the landscape connectivity status under the implementation of legislation for protecting riparian forests. The method was based on expert opinion translated into land use and land cover maps. The results show that the Protected Areas are still connected by a narrow band of landscape that is permeable to both species and that the Mosaics of Protected Areas increase the amount of protected area but fail to increase the connectivity between the forested mountain ranges (Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira). Riparian forests greatly increase connectivity, more than tripling the cougars' priority areas. We note that the selection of Brazilian protected areas still fails to create connectivity among the legally protected forest remnants. We recommend the immediate protection of the priority areas identified that would increase the structural landscape connectivity for these large carnivores, especially paths in the SE/NW direction between the two mountain ranges.

In PNAS, Myers et al. (1) present a paper in which they discuss adverse effects of ecosystem degradation on human health. We sincerely think that this is one of the more comprehensive papers in this field, but would like to draw attention to a number of findings from studies on Brazilian forest ecosystems that the authors seem to have overlooked.

O agroturismo, atividade turística associada às práticas agropecuárias desenvolvidas no meio rural, requer estudos de viabilidade e planejamento para que possa se desenvolver sob condições socioeconômicas e ambientais sustentáveis. Para tanto, um primeiro passo é o levantamento e a integração de indicadores que efetivamente apontem as áreas mais adequadas para explorar essa atividade. Desta forma, este estudo teve por objetivo selecionar e avaliar um conjunto de indicadores que, ao serem integrados, pudessem evidenciar as áreas de máxima potencialidade (aptidão) agroturística de um território, reconhecidas não só pelas suas qualidades agrícolas, mas pela sua capacidade de atendimento às demandas de turistas rurais e contribuição à manutenção da conservação ambiental. A área de estudo foi a bacia hidrográfica do Rio Mogi-Guaçú (SP, Br), cujos municípios compõem o "Circuito Paulista das Águas". Foram selecionados 14 indicadores a partir dos parâmetros comumente mencionados na pesquisa acadêmica e que melhor pudessem expressar a relação existente entre desenvolvimento rural, agroturismo e preservação ambiental. Os indicadores foram ponderados de acordo com sua importância ao agroturismo e a integração dos dados foi realizada utilizando um Sistema de Informações Geográficas (programas ENVI e IDRISI). Os resultados apontaram que cinco indicadores nortearam a seleção final das cidades de Socorro, Serra Negra e Águas de Lindóia como detentoras de maior potencial ao agroturismo. Também consideraram que a inclusão de maior quantidade de indicadores não favorece, necessariamente, a identificação das áreas melhor qualificadas para o agroturismo.

Em planejamento de áreas que fazem uso de irrigação, discutem-se, comumente, parâmetros de qualidade de água, objetivando evitar ou minimizar impactos desfavoráveis sobre a produção de culturas e a saúde da população. Este trabalho contribui na seleção e classificação, em ordem de importância, de parâmetros de qualidade que estejam envolvidos com o processo de irrigação. Assim, são hierarquizados, por meio do método multicriterial Electre I e II, seis parâmetros: coliforme fecal (CF); potencial hidrogeniônico (pH); demanda bioquímica de oxigênio (DBO); cloreto (Cl); nitrogênio total (Nt) e condutividade elétrica (CE), em função de nove culturas irrigadas: tomate, batata, feijão, laranja, morango, pêssego, alface, cenoura e beterraba. Adotou-se como área de estudo a bacia hidrográfica do rio Piracicaba (SP). Os resultados mostram que, para essa região, os parâmetros de maior preferência são CF e CE e, o de menor preferência, DBO. Developmental plans in the areas that make use of irrigation, discuss, commonly, water quality parameters with the objective of eliminating or minimizing unfavorable impacts on agriculture and on public health. Using this as a focus point, this paper contributes to the selection and classification of quality parameters that are envolved with the irrigation process, by importance order. Thus, six parameters (fecal coliform, hydrogenionical potential, biochemical demand of oxygen, cloride, total nitrogen, and electrical conductivity) are hierarquisated using the multicriterial methods Electre I and II related to nine irrigated cultures (tomatoes, potatoes, beans, oranges, strawberries, peaches, lettuce, carrots and beets). The study area is the Piracicaba river basin, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. The results demonstrate that, for this region, the parameters with the highest preference are the fecal coliform and the electrical conductivity and the least preference is the biochemical demand of oxygen.

Índices de qualidade de água têm sido amplamente usados como ferramenta para tomada de decisão em planejamento, mas, de modo geral, são dirigidos a qualificar água de abastecimento público. Reconhece-se, no entanto, a necessidade de avaliar a qualidade de água voltada à irrigação, de maneira a evitar ou minimizar impactos sobre a produção de culturas e saúde da população. O presente trabalho objetivou adaptar a formulação de um índice de qualidade de água (IQA) para um índice de qualidade de água para culturas irrigadas (IQAI), de modo a identificar condições que possam ser relevantes ao planejamento de recursos hídricos para irrigação. Obteve-se tal índice mediante agregação de parâmetros de qualidade para irrigação, utilizando a técnica de hierarquização Electre I e II e os modelos matemáticos produzidos a partir da função de qualidade (FQ). A área selecionada para aplicação do índice foi a bacia hidrográfica do rio Piracicaba (SP). Dividiram-se os resultados em dois grupos: IQAI1, cujos parâmetros foram coliforme fecal, potencial hidrogeniônico, demanda bioquímica de oxigênio, cloreto, nitrogênio total e condutividade elétrica, e IQAI2, caracterizado pela exclusão do parâmetro coliforme fecal. Os resultados do IQAI1 permitem concluir que a água da bacia do Piracicaba não é adequada para a irrigação de frutas e hortaliças pela elevada taxa de coliformes fecais. Corrigidos os problemas relativos a esse fator, através de sua supressão na FQ (IQAI2), pode-se considerar possível a utilização da água para os referidos tipos de cultura.Although Water Quality Index (WQI) is usually orientated to qualify urban water supply, it has been widely used by environmental planning decision makers. The quality of the irrigation water has to be evaluated to avoid or, at least, to minimize impacts on agriculture and human health. This paper presents the adaptation of the WQI to WQII in order to identify relevant conditions for the planning of the irrigation water resources. The aggregation of the irrigation water quality parameters, using Electre I/II hierarchic techniques, plus mathematical models from Quality Functions (QF) result in WQII. The obtained results were divided in two groups: WQII1, which includes faecal colimetry, hydrogenionical potential, biochemical demand of oxygen, cloride, total nitrogen, and electric conductivity parameters; and WQII2, which does not consider faecal colimetry in its QF. Piracicaba River watershed (São Paulo State, Brazil) was the study case. WQII1 shows a inappropriated water for vegetables and fruits irrigation, whereas WQII2 defines it as appropriated.

This study analyzed spatial variability with regard to natural resources of interest to traditional communities within an important protected area in the São Paulo State - the Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station. The historical occupation of the area was interpreted with a focus on the traditional practices related to the use of land, exploitation of the natural resources and topographic features. A historical line was drawn showing a clear relation between the expansion of the occupation and the development of new practices, giving rise to different outcomes in different ways of living with nature. We suggest that the decisions made about Juréia Forest conservation recognize the historical and territorial variations of traditional practices., Este estudio analizó la variabilidad espacial de intereses de comunidades tradicionales sobre los recursos naturales dentro de una importante área protegida en el Estado de São Paulo, la Estación Ecológica Juréia-Itatins. La historia de la ocupación fue interpretada con un enfoque en las prácticas tradicionales relacionadas con el uso de la tierra, la explotación de los recursos naturales y las características topográficas. Una línea histórica fue construida mostrando una clara relación entre la expansión de la ocupación y el desarrollo de identidades tradicionales, dando lugar a diferentes formas de convivir con la naturaleza.