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In this article we study the impact of Romans on the land use in the Lower Rhine by exploring a spatial simulation modelling framework that integrates economic and demographic factors with physical-environmental factors to simulate past land use on a regional level.

This paper focuses on unravelling the 1st millennium AD in the present-day Netherlands and the applicability of modelling when studying the past. By presenting the results of several studies analysing changes (or persistence) in connectivity and habitation patterns, the significance of these findings for (spatial) modelling is derived. The transition between the Roman and early-medieval periods is particularly interesting in this respect as it is characterised by severe pan-European political, socio-economic and demographic changes. Additionally, recent studies in geosciences increasingly point to marked climatic and landscape changes, such as river avulsions and floods, occurring at the same time. The extent to which these environmental and cultural dynamics were entwined and mutually influential is generally unknown, especially on larger-scale levels. Lowlands, such as the Netherlands, are especially suited to study these complex interactions since boundary conditions, i.e. the set of conditions required for maintaining the existing equilibrium in a region, in such areas are particularly sensitive to change.In this paper the combined results of several recently developed landscape-archaeological models are presented. These models spatially analyse natural and cultural dynamics in five manifestations: route networks, long-distance transport, settlement patterns, palaeodemographics and land-use systems. Combined, these manifestations provide information on connectivity, persistence and habitation, key concepts for the cultural landscape as a whole. Results show that only by integrating these modelling outcomes is it possible to reconstruct boundary conditions and high-resolution spatio-temporal frameworks for cultural-landscape change. Equally, these models invite reflection on their applicability and, as such, point to the need for new theoretical framing and the development of more multi-proxy, evidence-based and transdisciplinary research approaches in archaeology. The evident interrelationship between cultural and natural-landscape dynamics necessitates a more integrated and transparent research attitude, covering multiple scales and studying the cultural landscape as a whole. Only then can models reflect historical reality as closely as possible.

Research on route-network stability is rare. In time, due to cultural and/or natural causes, settlement locations and route orientation shift. The nature of these spatial changes sheds light on the complex interaction between settlements and surrounding natural landscape conditions. This study investigates the stability of route networks in the Netherlands during the past two millennia by determining their persistence through time. Environmental, archaeological and historical data are used to reconstruct and compare route networks. By using network friction, archaeological data on settlement patternsand route networks in combination with historical data (e.g. old maps), we were able to model route-network persistence (not necessarily continuity) from the Roman to early medieval periods (AD 100–800) and from the Early Middle Ages to the Early Modern Times (AD 800–1600). Results show that around 67.6% of the modelled early-mediëval routes in the Netherlands are persistent with routes in the Roman period. Covering a much larger surface area of theNetherlands, 24.5% of the early-modern routes show a clear persistence with their early-medieval counterparts. Besides the differences in surface area, this downfall can largely be explained by cultural dynamics, with 71.4% of the earlymodern route network following modelled movement corridors.already in existence during the Early Middle Ages.

Route networks are influenced by cultural and environmental dynamics. Consequently, route networks themselves often are dynamic as well. This is especially true in lowland areas, such as the Netherlands, where environmental processes (e.g. geomorphological changes, floods) probably reshaped these networks numerous times. Many of the existing route networks in the Netherlands were established relatively recently, and little is known of their historical predecessors. Recent developments in spatial modelling may improve locating and analysing these old, vanished routes. In this study we have applied two recently-developed applications for historical-route network modelling to the Veluwe (the Netherlands) in order to reconstruct the route network in the region around AD 1500. This region is not densely cultivated and is known to have a long history of routes and paths running through the landscape. The first method, network friction, uses high-resolution geoscientific and cultural data to calculate potential movement corridors and probable route zones. The second method uses a more traditional least-cost path (LCP) model based on surface, groundwater level and slope. The usefulness of these approaches for reconstructing past route networks and the general added value of these approaches was assessed by comparing the reconstructions to the few existing spatial overviews of historical-route networks in this region and hollow ways extracted from Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data. Our findings show that the results of the first method, network-friction modelling, correspond best with the comparison data regarding known routes in the study area. However, the general results point towards the necessity of integrating the two applied methods, since a combination of these models best reflects the multiscale variability within regional route networks.

This study focuses on reconstructing landscape prerequisites for Roman and early-medieval routes in the Netherlands. We applied spatial modeling to modern and paleogeographical landscape data in order to determine geographical obstacles for possible translocation in ca. A.D. 100 and 800 via land and water. Network-friction values were calculated to produce a spatial model of possible movement corridors and to enable the integration of archaeological data. Results show that in geographically dynamic lowland regions such as the current Netherlands, landscape units such as water, peat, and levees must have had a high impact on route orientation. The lower parts of the western Netherlands were almost inaccessible by land, implying that its inhabitants largely must have depended on rivers and streams for transportation. In Dutch coastal and river areas, the landscape changed drastically between A.D. 100 and 800, the largest changes occurring along the coast.

Medieval Settlement Research, 32, 35-39, A landscape-archaeological reconstruction of long-distance riverine communication routes in the Low Countries, presenting initial results of the Dark Age of the Lowlands in an Interdisciplinary Light project

Dendrochronological data formats in general offer limited space for recording associated metadata. Such information is often recorded separately from the actual time series, and often only on paper. TRiDaBASE has been developed to improve metadata administration. It is a relational Microsoft Access database that allows users to register digital metadata according to TRiDaS, to generate TRiDaS XML for uploading to TRiDaS-based analytical systems and repositories, and to ingest TRiDaS XML created elsewhere for local querying and analyses.

Existing on-line databases for dendrochronology are not flexible in terms of user permissions, tree-ring data formats, metadata administration and language. This is why we developed the Digital Collaboratory for Cultural Dendrochronology (DCCD). This TRiDaS-based multi-lingual database allows users to control data access, to perform queries, to upload and download (meta)data in a variety of digital formats, and to edit metadata on line. The content of the DCCD conforms to EU best practices regarding the long-term preservation of digital research data.