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Research on twentieth-century voluntary organizations and their contribution to the reconstruction of states, communities and humanitarian assistance to civilian populations following conflicts, epidemics and disasters has tended to focus on non-Western European countries. Scholarly works from the history discipline over the past decades indicate that it is mostly in Africa, the Middle East, the West Indies, Eastern Europe and Asia where natural or man-made disasters have occurred, and it is these places that have been the focus of humanitarian assistance. Although the literature acknowledges that Western Europe was at times the beneficiary of such assistance, the broad history of humanitarian reconstruction and assistance generally considers Western Europe as a key provider rather than a recipient of humanitarian assistance. This two-part Special Issue proposes to do the opposite, to add complexity and nuance to the historiography of humanitarian aid and reconstruction assistance in Western Europe. It explores the ways in which voluntary organizations have contributed to the reconstruction and the care of populations in Western European countries including but not limited to Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom after both the First and Second World War. It seeks to investigate how the Red Cross movement – individual National Societies, the International Committee of the Red Cross and the League of Red Cross Societies – alongside other voluntary organizations such as the Rockefeller Foundation and a range of other international and local non-government bodies, have contributed to reconstruction in Western Europe at both national and local levels following times of crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Develop and validate a thorough exposure questionnaire to comprehensively explore crystalline silica (SiO2) exposure in the general population (gender-specific, occupational and non-occupational) and in patients with autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic sclerosis (SSc)). Methods Lifetime exposures to SiO2 in occupational and non-occupational settings were assessed using a thorough exposure questionnaire. The questionnaire was applied to a general population panel (n  = 2911) sampled from the French rolling census, and to unselected patients with SSc (n  = 100) and RA (n  = 97). Global (GES), occupational (OES) and non-occupational (NOES) exposure scores were assessed in SSc and RA patients, and compared with up to four controls from the general population, matched by age group, sex and tobacco consumption. Results Patients had higher GES than their matched controls (SSc: P  = 0.001; RA: P  < 0.0001) due to higher OES (P  < 0.0001 for SSc and RA). Men had higher GES than women (SSc: P  < 0.0001; RA: P  = 0.002) due to higher OES (P  < 0.0001 for SSc and RA). The NOES did not differ between men and women. In SSc patients: Men had higher GES than controls (P  < 0.0001). Men and women with SSc had higher OES than controls (P  < 0.0001). In RA patients: GES and OES were higher in both men (P  = 0.00521; P  < 0.0001) and women (P  < 0.0001; P  < 0.0001) than in their respective controls. Women had higher NOES than controls (P  = 0.045). Conclusion The lifetime SiO2 exposure gap between RA and SSc patients and controls was substantially due to occupational exposure. In both diseases, men had higher exposure scores than women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the creation of a 1942 survey designed to explore the causes of the declining birth rate in France and offer solutions, and revisits the data it produced. Led by the sociologist Jean Stoetzel, a pioneer of survey-based research, it consisted of a questionnaire developed with the interviewers themselves--mainly teachers and priests. The questions took up the themes of the pronatalist movement in all their diversity, from repressive proposals (including anti-abortion policies) to social measures for supporting households. The survey concluded that the French public supported natalism but believed that the causes of the low birth rate were primarily economic, rather than moral or religious. Financial incentives were deemed useful but insufficient. While Stoetzel recommended a propaganda campaign based on patriotism and moral reform, re-examination of the survey data shows that respondents were primarily concerned by the practicalities of the living conditions associated with large families. Within the range of moral attitudes expressed, repressive leanings were mainly concentrated in rural areas. Overall, survey respondents were sensitive to the plight of vulnerable populations, including single mothers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]