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Parenting is a key factor for the development of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Therefore, early intervention programs should target parenting behaviors to improve children’s developmental outcomes. The present study analyzed the effect of parental behaviors and other family factors on the cognitive and linguistic development of children with an intellectual disability (ID). Participants (n = 87, aged between 20 and 47 months) were recruited from several Spanish Early Intervention Centers. The children’s development was assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-III) on two occasions. Besides questionnaires including family factors, 10-min mother–child and father-child interactions during free play were auto-recorded at home. Intensive statistical modeling on the two measurement occasions was used to select relevant predictors as well as their interactions. Child cognitive development models, including predictors such as mother’s responsiveness and affection and father’s teaching, had a predictive capacity between 22 and 26%. The language development models, including the mother’s responsiveness and father’s teaching scores amongst other predictors, yielded adjusted-R2s between 26 and 28%. This study’s findings evidence that parental behaviors during adult–child interaction affect the development of children with intellectual disabilities. The study also provides data that can be used to guide early intervention.

Early intervention services (EIS) worked hard to continue serving children and their families during the COVID-19 lockdown, using online applications. This study aimed to determine families’ and professionals’ perceptions of the functioning of the early intervention (EI) model in Spain during the pandemic. The study sample comprised two subsamples: 81 families of children attended at an EIS (72 mothers and 9 fathers) and 213 professionals recruited from EIS. The survey was conducted online several weeks after the end of the strict lockdown in Spain. Descriptive statistics of the questionnaire answered by families and professionals were compiled, comparisons were made between the families’ and the professionals’ responses, and the relationships with several sociodemographic variables were analyzed. The results indicated that parents who cared for their children and were fully responsible for housework, parents who had used telematic tools before the lockdown, and younger professionals had a more positive perception of the EI model and the incorporation of family-centered practices (FCP) during the pandemic. The results also showed statistically significant differences in some items between parents and professionals: for example, professionals perceived more advantages than families during the lockdown, quoting the greater participation of families in the intervention and a greater focus on families’ needs. The data obtained from professionals suggested a more positive attitude toward FCP: however, the results show that they continued to adopt a directive role in the intervention, a position that is at odds with the tenets of FCP. There is a clear need for more training if a paradigm shift to FCP is to be achieved. Families’ and caregivers’ perceptions of telerehabilitation, and their adherence to telerehabilitation programs, are discussed. The implications of this study with regard to guiding future telematic interventions and family support are also considered.

Background/Objective: To gain knowledge about mothers' and fathers' interactions with their sons and daughters, we need reliable and valid tools to assess parental behaviors that can be used for different caregivers and in a variety of cultural contexts. The aim of this study was to analyze the psychometric properties of Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO) to assess fathers' interaction with their children at early ages. PICCOLO is an observational tool originally developed in the United States for mothers and fathers and previously validated in Spain with a sample of mothers.Methods: One hundred and ninety-one father–child dyads were observed during free-play situations at home when the children were between 10 and 47 months of age (55.0% male). The fathers auto recorded 8–10 minutes of interaction and trained evaluators assessed the recordings with PICCOLO.Results: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the dimensional structure of the original version of the scale: four first-order factors (Affection, Responsiveness, Encouragement and Teaching) and one second-order factor (Parenting). The tool was found to have high inter-rater reliability at domain and total score level. Ordinal alpha and omega coefficients for each domain ranged between 0.79 and 0.85, and 0.64 and 0.79, respectively. No statistically significant differences were found in any PICCOLO domain or in the total score according to the child's gender. In assessments of the child's development with the Bayley-III scales, moderate positive correlations were found between Encouragement and receptive language (r = 0.32), and between Teaching and expressive (r = 0.34) and composite language (r = 0.31).Conclusion: The Spanish version of PICCOLO can be used to assess fathers' parenting. As PICCOLO is clearly linked to intervention goals, it is of particular interest for practitioners in early intervention and family programs.

The systemic, ecological, family-centered approach (FCA) has been shown to be the most effective approach to follow worldwide. In Spain, however, the expert-centered approach remains in force and determines the actions of professionals. The objective of this study is to present the training needs perceived by professionals in six early intervention (EI) centers in Spain in which a research process was introduced, namely, the FCA. Two focus groups were held. The needs stated by professionals were for more knowledge about the philosophy of the approach: supervision, learning in reference centers, and exchange sessions with families as the most appropriate training methods; the observation of role models; collaboration between professionals and the trainer as effective instructional designs; and organizational aspects such as training within the work day. A discussion of the results is carried out in the context of current literature and the practical implications are explored.

The aims of this study were to analyze the interactions of mothers and fathers with their children with intellectual disabilities, focusing on certain parental behaviors previously identified as promoting child development, and to explore the relations between parenting and some sociodemographic variables. A sample of 87 pairs of mothers and fathers of the same children were recruited from Early Intervention Centers. The children (58 male and 29 female) were aged 20–47 months. Most of the families (92%) were from the province of Barcelona (Spain), and the remaining 8% were from the other provinces of Catalonia (Spain). Parenting behaviors, divided into four domains (Affection, Responsiveness, Encouragement, and Teaching) were assessed from self-recorded videotapes, in accordance with the validated Spanish version of the PICCOLO (Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes). Parents were administered a sociodemographic questionnaire. The results revealed strong similarities between mothers’ and fathers’ parental behaviors. Mothers and fathers were more likely to engage in affectionate behavior than in teaching behavior. Only maternal teaching presented a significant positive relation to the child’s age. With respect to the child’s gender, no differences were observed in mothers’ parenting. Conversely, fathers scored significantly higher in Responsiveness, Encouragement and Teaching (and had higher total parenting scores) when interacting with boys. The severity of the child’s ID had a statistically significant effect only on fathers’ Teaching, which showed lower mean scores in the severe ID group than in the moderate and mild ID groups. Teaching also presented a significant positive relation to mother’s age, but father’s age was not related to any parenting domain. Mothers with a higher educational level scored significantly higher in Encouragement and Teaching, and the fathers’ educational level was not significantly related to any parenting domain. Mothers’ and fathers’ Teaching, and fathers’ Responsiveness, Encouragement and total parenting scores, presented a significant positive relation to family income. Finally, mothers spent more time in childcare activities than fathers, particularly on workdays. Our main conclusion is that mothers and fathers show very similar strengths and weaknesses when interacting with their children with intellectual disabilities during play.

En aquest article oferim una revisió actualitzada dels principals resultats de les investigacions sobre el desenvolupament inicial de la comunicació i del llenguatge, posant l’èmfasi en com els pares i les mares, i en general els adults significatius per als nens i les nens, promouen el desenvolupament de les habilitats comunicatives i lingüístiques infantils.Inicialment, revisem les característiques dels primers intercanvis comunicatius entre bebès i adults, centrant-nos especialment en com evolucionen l’atenció conjunta i la intencionalitat en el marc d’aquests intercanvis. Posteriorment, abordem com determinats comportaments parentals que defineixen la parentalitat positiva s’han mostrat relacionats amb el desenvolupament infantil en general i amb el desenvolupament comunicatiu i lingüístic en particular. També ens referim a les característiques de la Parla Adreçada als Infants que, d’acord, amb les investigacions, donen suport al procés d’adquisició del llenguatge. Acabem senyalant algunes implicacions pràctiques dels resultats de les investigacions, a prendre en consideració en la intervenció professional amb les famílies i els educadors dels nens i nenes que requereixen una atenció especial en l’àrea de la comunicació i del llenguatge., In this paper, we offer an updated review of the main results of research on early communicative and linguistic development, emphasizing how fathers and mothers, and significant adults for children in general, promote the development of children’s communicative and linguistic skills.Initially, we review the characteristics of the first communicative exchanges between babies and adults, focusing especially on how joint attention and intentionality evolve within the framework of these exchanges. Subsequently, we address how certain parental behaviors that define positive parenting have been shown to be related to child development in general and to communicative and linguistic development in particular. We also refer to those characteristics of child-directed speech that, according to research, support the process of language acquisition. We conclude by pointing out some practical implications of the results of the research, to be considered in professional intervention with families and educators of children who require special attention in the area of communication and language., En este artículo ofrecemos una revisión actualizada de los principales resultados de las investigaciones sobre el desarrollo inicial de la comunicación y del lenguaje, poniendo el énfasis en como los padres y las madres, y en general los adultos significativos para los niños y las niñas, promueven el desarrollo de las habilidades comunicativas y lingüísticas infantiles.Inicialmente, revisamos las características de los primeros intercambios comunicativos entre bebés y adultos, centrándonos especialmente en cómo evolucionan la atención conjunta y la intencionalidad en el marco de esos intercambios. Posteriormente, abordamos cómo determinados comportamientos parentales que definen la parentalidad positiva se han mostrado relacionados con el desarrollo infantil en general y con el desarrollo comunicativo y lingüístico en particular. También nos referimos a las características del habla dirigida a los niños que, de acuerdo con las investigaciones, apoyan el proceso de adquisición del lenguaje. Finalizamos señalando algunas implicaciones prácticas de los resultados de las investigaciones, a tomar en consideración en la intervención profesional con las familias y los educadores de los niños y niñas que requieren una atención especial en el área de la comunicación y del lenguaje.

Families with children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) have positive perceptions that may raise levels of FQoL. However, little is known about what happens to these positive perceptions and FQoL when the family members with ID reach adulthood. Our main objective was to analyze the predictors of FQoL, incorporating demographic variables and parents’ positive perceptions before and after the family member with ID turns 18. A sample of 861 families who had a family member with ID between 1 and 70 years old completed both the Positive Contributions Scale (PCS) in order to measure their positive perceptions and the Spanish family quality of life scale for under 18-years-old or over 18-years-old in order to assess FQoL. Firstly, a bivariate analysis was conducted to study the effect of demographic variables and PCS scores on FQoL scores. Secondly, variables whose effect was found to be statistically significant in the bivariate analysis were included in a multiple linear regression model to predict FQoL scores. Results indicated that families with higher levels of positive perceptions reported higher levels of FQoL. The predictive analysis of FQoL showed that in both groups of families with a member with ID younger or older than 18 years of age, there was a significant effect from positive perceptions on the reported levels of FQoL, even when the effect of the demographic variables included in the model was eliminated. The present results provide further evidence of the importance of a positive approach toward families with a family member who have ID, reinforcing and broadening the positive perceptions in order to promote their FQoL. The practical implications of these findings are discussed, along with directions for future research.

Early intervention (EI) has been shown to be an essential resource for meeting the needs and priorities of children with intellectual and developmental disability and their families. The objective of this study was to examine (a) the perceived quality of life of families attending EI centers in Spain and (b) its relationship with characteristics of the children and their families. The Family Quality of Life Scale was administered to a sample of 281 families with children aged 0 to 6 years attending an EI center. To determine the relationship between family quality of life (FQoL) and the family and children’s characteristics, Student’s t test and one-way ANOVA were performed. Likewise, effect size was measured in those groups. The results show that the emotional well-being of families was high, although they were concerned about health and financial well-being. The perceived FQoL varies depending on income, family type, and severity of the child’s disability. Implications for professional practice in EI centers are presented.

Researchers in the field of disability are showing a growing interest in assessing the impact of having a child with disabilities on parental perceptions and family functioning. This study explores the relationships between positive perceptions, perceived control, and family quality of life (FQoL) in families of children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID), in order to assess whether positive perceptions and perceived control are predictors of FQoL. The Kansas inventory of parental perceptions was administered to a sample of 327 Spanish families with a child or adolescent with ID completed in order to assess their positive perceptions and perceived control, and the Spanish family quality of life scale (0–18 years) in order to assess FQoL. Linear regression analysis was applied to determine whether positive perceptions and perceived control were predictors of FQoL. Results indicated that families with higher levels of positive perceptions reported greater emotional wellbeing, better health and adaptation to disability, and higher levels of FQoL. Similarly, families with higher levels of perceived control reported better levels of FQoL and greater satisfaction with the services provided for their child. With the exception of employment status, demographic variables had no bearing on these significant relationships. These results may help service providers to develop new intervention strategies for families with children with ID, fostering their positive perceptions and perceived control and ultimately promoting their FQoL.

Background/Objective: The aim of this study was to explore the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO; Roggman et al., 2013a). This observational measure is composed of 29 items that assess the quality of four domains of parenting interactions that promote child development: affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching. Methods: The sample included 203 mother-child dyads who had been video-recorded playing together. Fifty-six percent of the children were male, and 44% were female, aged from 10 to 47 months. Video-recorded observations were rated using PICCOLO items. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supported that the instrument has four first-order factors corresponding to the hypothesized domains of parenting behaviors, and a second-order factor corresponding to a general factor of positive parenting. Construct validation evidence was compiled by examining the relationship between PICCOLO scores and child age. As expected, teaching domain and total PICCOLO scores were positively correlated with child age. The Spanish PICCOLO also demonstrated good inter-rater reliability (ranging from 0.69 to 0.84) and internal consistency reliability (ranging from 0.59 to 0.88) for the four domain scores and the total parenting score. Concurrent criterion-related validity was examined via correlations between parenting scores and child cognitive, language and motor skills outcomes, measured using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. Conclusion: The Spanish version of the PICCOLO meets the criteria for a reliable and valid observational measurement of parenting interactions with children. The psychometric properties of the instrument make it appropriate for general research purposes, but also for program evaluation of Early Intervention and other parenting-support interventions. This measure, focused on parent strengths, could be used to facilitate family-centered practices in early intervention and other programs that have parenting as an outcome.

Researchers, professionals, and families have shown increasing concern about the quality of life of people with intellectual disabilities (ID) and their families. Due to the growing interest in family quality of life (FQoL) as a key issue for social policy in the ID field, the aim of this research was to explore FQoL in Catalonia (Spain). The Spanish Family Quality of Life Scales (CdVF-E) were completed by 144 families using the version for households with children up to 18 years of age and by 122 families using the version for households with adult children over 18 years of age. The results show that FQoL is higher in families with adult children over 18 years of age than in families with children up to 18 years of age, and there are differences among domains in both groups. Likewise, there are relations between the scores in the scales and some demographic characteristics such as marital status, level of education, employment status, and family income, particularly in households with children under 18 years of age.

Previous research has highlighted the critical role of parents’ perceptions of their family member with intellectual disability (ID) in family well-being and adjustment. The Kansas Inventory of Parental Perceptions (KIPP; Behr et al. 1992) was specifically designed to assess parents’ perceptions of their children with disability. The KIPP is composed of four scales: Positive Contributions, Social Comparisons, Causal Attributions and Perceived Control. The goal of this study was to adapt a shortened form of the KIPP to the Spanish population. The study participants comprised 861 families with a family member with ID. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to identify the underlying dimensions of the four scales of the KIPP. The results showed the internal consistency of the subscale scores to be good, and the correlations with Family Quality of Life measures provided evidence of the concurrent criterion validity of the KIPP scores. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

This study explores gender differences in positive perceptions, anxiety, and depression among mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities (IDs). We examined the relationship between these variables and certain characteristics of both the child (age and severity of disability) and the parents (age, educational level, and employment status). A sample of 60 mother/father couples who had children with IDs completed the Positive Contributions Scale to measure their positive perceptions, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale to assess their level of anxiety and depression. Bivariate analyses were used to determine differences between fathers and mothers as regards their positive perceptions and levels of anxiety and depression. A logistic regression model was then applied to identify which of the variables might be significant predictors of the gender differences observed among parents. Both mothers and fathers had positive perceptions of their children with IDs that co-existed with symptoms of anxiety and depression, with scores being higher among mothers. The predictive analysis of gender showed that individual variables (such as the employment status of both parents) may explain these differences.

Background The study assesses the support needs of individuals with intellectual disability and their families in Catalonia. The present authors examine family quality of life (FQoL), identify the individual services required and assess families' perceptions of the extent to which their family member with intellectual disability and they themselves receive the services they need. Materials and Methods The N&S questionnaire (Needs and Supports for people with intellectual disability and their families) was administered to 2160 families with a family member with intellectual disability aged under 70 in Catalonia (Spain). Results Overall mean FQoL was quite high. FQoL was associated with family income, education, employment and percentage level of disability. Neither people with intellectual disability nor their families receive the specific support they need. Conclusions Besides providing specific support for individuals with intellectual disability, local policymakers and practitioners should apply a family-centred approach to the provision of support for families in order to improve FQoL.

ResumenLa atencion temprana es una realidad suficientemente consolidada en Espana despues de treinta anos de trabajo con familias y ninos con trastornos del desarrollo o riesgo de padecerlos. Este articulo supone una reflexion en torno a las practicas profesionales que tienen lugar en los centros de atencion temprana de nuestro pais y los principios teoricos que les dan cobertura, con la finalidad de realizar algunas propuestas de futuro. En este sentido, se subraya y se reivindica la necesidad de adoptar un enfoque centrado en la familia, en la misma linea que ya se inicio hace unos anos con la publicacion del Libro Blanco de la Atencion Temprana. La adopcion progresiva de este enfoque por parte de los profesionales contribuiria a mejorar algunos de los puntos debiles que todavia hoy presenta la atencion temprana en nuestro pais.

This article presents an overview of the state of early intervention in Spain after 30 years of work with families and children with developmental disorders or at risk of suffering from such disorders. The organisation and conceptual base of early intervention in Spain have gradually evolved over the past few decades. This field is still in the midst of a transformation process, moving toward an intervention model that is more family-focused and more integrated into the community's services network. However, administrative, financial, and professional training difficulties still remain. This emerging intervention model is described in detail in this article and, as much as possible, illustrated within the framework of the Developmental Systems Model put forward by Guralnick. Results of a pilot study at 4 early intervention centres in Catalonia (Spain) are discussed, including the current state of early intervention and needed improvements. Further discussion of progress in the field of early intervention in Spain and future directions follows.

Many child language studies emphasize the value of verbal and social support, of ‘scaffolding’ processes and mutual adjustments that naturally occur in adult-child interactions in everyday contexts. Based on such theories, this study attempted to improve the language and communication skills in children with special educational needs through naturalistic intervention. The results showed positive changes in the targeted language components of three children with Down syndrome. We consider that child language gains were best maintained after intervention if the mothers received at the same time specific advice about verbal interaction at home.

ResumenDurante los ultimas anos, los trabajos sobre el desarrollo del lenguaje infantil, enfatizan el papel que desempena la interaccion social y verbal entre ninos y adultos en relacion a la adquisicion del lenguaje en ninos de desarrollo normal. Sin embargo, a pesar de la idea optimista de que los estudios realizados en poblacion normal pueden dar lugar a modelos de intervencion logopedica con ninos discapacitados, se han disenado muy pocos estudios de investigacion intervencion en este sentido. Este estudio pretende justamente paliar esta falta, empleando algunas de las estrategias observadas en los procesos naturales de adquisicion de la comunicacion y lenguaje, consideradas optimizadoras del desarrollo, en el trabajo terapeutico en el area del lenguaje con ninos que tienen Necesidades Educativas Especiales (NEE). De los resultados obtenidos se pueden derivar consecuencias relativas a la practica clinica y educativa y a la adquisicion de primera o segunda lengua.

Background Researchers, professionals, and families have shown increasing concern with the family quality of life (FQoL) of people with intellectual disability (ID) and their families. The goals of this research were (a) to explore how Spanish families understand FQoL by developing 2 different measurement tools for families with a member with ID under and over 18 years old, and (b) to provide 2 diagnostic instruments that will be useful for designing action plans.Method The study comprised 4 stages: (a) focus groups, (b) expert assessment, (c) pilot study, and (d) normalisation and standardisation. The data were collected in 5 regions in Spain, and 1,205 families with a member with ID took part in the normalisation and standardisation of the scales.Results Both FQoL scales were consistent and have valid psychometric characteristics.Conclusions The scales have a diagnostic purpose for use in designing action plans aimed at producing significant changes in families’ lives.

The object of this research is to build up a picture of what families with children with intellectual disability in Spain understand by quality of life and, on this basis, draw up a scale specially focusing on adults (over 18) that will furnish information on the support required by these families and so allow us to promote the necessary resources from the organizations and the different administrations.

Resumen Se han analizado las interacciones verbales de cinco ninos de 2 a 3 anos de edad con sus respectivas madres, comunicandose bien en catalan, castellano o ingles. Se han llevado a cabo un analisis de las estrategias utilizadas por parte del adulto para superar momentos de incomprension y se han estudiado los diversos principios psicologicos que sustentan a esas estrategias de reparacion del dialogo. Las estrategias mas utilizadas independientemente de la lengua en que se hablara, han consistido en la repeticion del mensaje o bien en llevar a cabo pequenos cambios en el. Estas estrategias han sido satisfactorias en la reparacion del discurso, lo cual nos hace pensar que estan basadas en leyes psicologicas bien establecidas como son el procesamiento de la informacion, la atencion y la memoria. Entre las diversas causas que podian ocasionar estos momentos de incomprension se ha observado una falta de procesamiento sensorial, logico y linguistico en las interacciones verbales de las madres con sus hijos. El hallazgo de fenomenos similares independientemente de la lengua utilizada, nos hacen sugerir la presencia de Principios Psicologicos Generales bajo esas distintas estrategias reparatorias de discurso.

Resumen En este trabajo presentamos los resultados de una investigación en la que han participado 4 maestras: 2 de educación infantil y 2 de educación primaria. Se ha llevado a cabo un asesoramiento utilizando la metodología conversacional a una maestra de cada nivel educativo con el objetivo de promover un cambio conceptual en relación con la representación sobre los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje de la lengua oral. Durante un periodo de 4 meses las 2 maestras del grupo experimental participaron en 4 reuniones de asesoramiento con algunos de los investigadores. Además se realizó un grupo de discusión con las 2 maestras del grupo experimental y del grupo control antes del asesoramiento y otro una vez finalizado este. Se elaboró un instrumento ad hoc para analizar las reuniones de asesoramiento y los grupos de discusión. Los resultados indican que las maestras del grupo experimental progresan desde una visión de la lengua oral centrada en aspectos de forma y contenido, y desde la consideración de los factores madurativos como principales responsables del aprendizaje de la lengua oral, hacia una conceptualización que otorga una importancia fundamental a los aspectos de uso del lenguaje, a la interacción social y a las estrategias que utilizan las maestras en clase como factores explicativos de la competencia oral de los alumnos. Abstract We present the results of a research project in which 4 teachers (2 kindergarten and 2 primary school teachers) took part. A counselling process using conversational methodology was carried out with one teacher from each setting to promote a conceptual change in the teachers' representation of oral language teaching and learning processes. During a 4-month period, the 2 teachers in the experimental group participated in 2 counselling meetings with some of the researchers. We also carried out a focus group with all four teachers before and after the meetings. An ad hoc instrument was designed to analyze the meetings and the focus groups. The results show that teachers in the experimental group progressed from a conception focused on formal and content-based aspects of oral language to a conception that stresses language use, social interaction, and the strategies employed by teachers in class as explanatory factors for pupils' oral language competence.

The aim of the study was to examine the relation between demographic variables, parental characteristics, and cognitive, language and motor skills development in children with intellectual disabilities (ID). A sample of 89 children with ID, aged 20 to 47 months, completed the Bayley Scales of Infant Development to measure cognitive, motor and linguistic development. Parents were administered questionnaires about demographic information and parental anxiety, depression, parental stress, conjugality and familial functioning. Parenting behaviors (affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching) were observed using the Spanish version of PICCOLO (Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes). A bivariate analysis showed that cognitive development in infants was significantly related to the mother’s and father’s responsiveness, and to the father’s teaching scores. Infant language development was related to a variety of maternal factors (educational level, anxiety, depression, maternal responsiveness) and to the father’s teaching scores. None of the factors were statistically related to child motor development. A multivariate regression analysis indicated that children’s cognitive development can be predicted by a linear combination of maternal responsiveness and paternal teaching scores. Language development can be predicted by a linear combination of maternal anxiety and responsiveness, and paternal teaching scores. The present study provides evidence of the importance of paternal involvement for cognitive and language development in children with intellectual disabilities, and contributes to the increasing literature about fathering. Gaining knowledge about parental contributions to children’s development is relevant for improving positive parenting in early intervention programs.