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Background. The introduction of 2 or 3 fully active drugs in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients receiving failing antiretroviral therapy is a key determinant of subsequent treatment efficacy. The aim of this study was to assess the safety and efficacy of a regimen containing raltegravir, etravirine, and darunavir/ ritonavir for treatment-experienced patients infected with multidrug-resistant HIV. Methods. Patients enrolled in this phase II, noncomparative, multicenter trial were naive to the investigational drugs and had plasma HIV RNA levels 11000 copies/mL, a history of virologic failure while receiving nonnucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI), ⩾3 primary protease inhibitor and nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) mutations, and ⩽3 darunavir and NNRTI mutations. The primary end point was the proportion of patients with plasma HIV RNA levels <50 copies/mL at 24 weeks. Results. A total of 103 patients enrolled in the study. At baseline, genotypic resistance profiles showed a median of 4 primary protease inhibitor mutations, 1 NNRTI mutation, and 6 NRTI mutations. In addition to the investigational drugs, 90 patients (87%) received optimized background therapy that included NRTIs (86 patients) or enfuvirtide (12 patients). At week 24, 90% of patients (95% confidence interval, 85%-96%) had an HIV RNA level <50 copies/mL. At week 48, 86% (95% confidence interval, 80%-93%) had an HIV RNA level <50 copies/ mL. The median CD4 cell count increase was 108 cells/mm3. Grade 3 or 4 clinical adverse events were reported in 15 patients (14.6%). Only 1 patient discontinued the investigational antiretroviral regimen, because of an adverse event. Conclusion. In patients infected with multidrug-resistant virus who have few remaining treatment options, the combination of raltegravir, etravirine, and darunavir/ritonavir is well tolerated and is associated with a rate of virologic suppression similar to that expected in treatment-naive patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: We investigated the in vitro phenotypic susceptibility of HIV-2 isolates from integrase inhibitor (INI)-naive patients to INIs and its relation to HIV-2 integrase gene polymorphism.Methods: We determined the phenotypic susceptibility to raltegravir and elvitegravir of co-cultured isolates obtained from the HIV-2 ROD reference strain and from 14 clinical isolates. IC(50) values were compared with those for HIV-1 reference strains. HIV-2 integrase gene polymorphism was assessed in isolates from 52 INI-naive patients enrolled in the French HIV-2 cohort.Results: Median raltegravir and elvitegravir IC(50) values for the 14 clinical HIV-2 isolates were 2.4 and 0.7 nM, respectively, and were similar to those observed for HIV-2 ROD and HIV-1 reference strains. Overall, 38% of HIV-2 integrase amino acids were polymorphic. The catalytic triad DDE and the HHCC and RKK motifs were fully conserved, at the same genomic positions as described in HIV-1. In subtype B isolates, the total length of the integrase gene varied, owing to the presence of stop codons at positions 288, 294, 297 and 302. Fourteen of the positions associated with substitutions conferring INI resistance in HIV-1 were polymorphic in HIV-2.Conclusions: Despite 40% heterogeneity between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 integrase genes, the phenotypic susceptibility of clinical HIV-2 isolates to INIs was similar to that of HIV-1. This new class of antiretroviral drugs thus represents a novel therapeutic possibility for HIV-2-infected patients who otherwise have few treatment options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since early 2021, SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) have been causing epidemic rebounds in many countries. Their properties are well characterized at the epidemiological level but the potential underlying within-host determinants remain poorly understood. We analyze a longitudinal cohort of 6944 individuals with 14 304 cycle threshold (Ct) values of reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) VOC screening tests performed in the general population and hospitals in France between February 6 and August 21, 2021. To convert Ct values into numbers of virus copies, we performed an additional analysis using droplet digital PCR (ddPCR). We find that the number of viral genome copies reaches a higher peak value and has a slower decay rate in infections caused by Alpha variant compared to that caused by historical lineages. Following the evidence that viral genome copies in upper respiratory tract swabs are informative on contagiousness, we show that the kinetics of the Alpha variant translate into significantly higher transmission potentials, especially in older populations. Finally, comparing infections caused by the Alpha and Delta variants, we find no significant difference in the peak viral copy number. These results highlight that some of the differences between variants may be detected in virus load variations., (© 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

We analyzed 324,734 SARS-CoV-2 variant screening tests from France enriched with 16,973 whole-genome sequences sampled during September 1, 2021-February 28, 2022. Results showed the estimated growth advantage of the Omicron variant over the Delta variant to be 105% (95% CI 96%-114%) and that of the BA.2 lineage over the BA.1 lineage to be 49% (95% CI 44%-52%). Quantitative PCR cycle threshold values were consistent with an increased ability of Omicron to generate breakthrough infections. Epidemiologic modeling shows that, in spite of its decreased virulence, the Omicron variant can generate important critical COVID-19 activity in hospitals in France. The magnitude of the BA.2 wave in hospitals depends on the level of relaxing of control measures but remains lower than that of BA.1 in median scenarios.

The newly identified coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 is responsible for the worldwide pandemic COVID-19. Considerable efforts have been devoted for the development of effective vaccine strategies against COVID-19. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein has been identified as the major antigen candidate for the development of COVID-19 vaccines. The Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine COMIRNATY is a lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated mRNA encoding a full-length and prefusion-stabilized SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. In the present study, synthetic peptide-based ELISA assays were performed to identify linear B-cell epitopes into the spike protein that contribute to elicitation of antibody response in COMIRNATY-vaccinated individuals. The synthetic S2P6 peptide containing the spike residues 1138/1169 and to a lesser extent, the synthetic S1P4 peptide containing the spike residues 616/644 were recognized by the immune sera from COMIRNATY vaccine recipients but not COVID-19 recovered patients. We assume that the synthetic S2P6 peptide and to a lesser extent the synthetic S1P4 peptide, could be of interest to measure the dynamic of antibody response to COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. The S2P6 peptide has been identified as immunogenic in adult BALB/c mice that received protein-peptide conjugates in a prime-boost schedule. This raises the question on the role of the B-cell epitope peptide containing the SARS-CoV-2 spike residues 1138/1169 in protective efficacy of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine COMIRNATY., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

SARS-CoV-2 variants raise concern regarding the mortality caused by COVID-19 epidemics. We analyse 88,375 cycle amplification (Ct) values from variant-specific RT-PCR tests performed between January 26 and March 13, 2021. We estimate that on March 12, nearly 85% of the infections were caused by the Alpha variant and that its transmission advantage over wild type strains was between 38 and 44%. We also find that tests positive for Alpha and Beta/Gamma variants exhibit significantly lower cycle threshold (Ct) values., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: Legionella spp. are ubiquitous freshwater bacteria responsible for rare but potentially severe cases of Legionnaires' disease (LD). Legionella sainthelensi is a non-pneumophila Legionella species that was first isolated in 1980 from water near Mt. St-Helens (USA). Although rare cases of LD caused by L. sainthelensi have been reported, very little data is available on this pathogen., Case Presentation: We describe the first documented case of severe bilateral pleuropneumonia caused by L. sainthelensi. The patient was a 35-year-old woman with Sharp's syndrome treated with long-term hydroxychloroquine and corticosteroids who was hospitalized for an infectious illness in a university hospital in Reunion Island (France). The patient's clinical presentation was complicated at first (bilateral pneumonia, multiloculated pleural effusion, then bronchopleural fistula) but her clinical condition eventually improved with the reintroduction of macrolides (spiramycin) in intensive care unit. Etiological diagnosis was confirmed by PCR syndromic assay and culture on bronchoalveolar lavage., Conclusions: To date, only 14 documented cases of L. sainthelensi infection have been described worldwide. This pathogen is difficult to identify because it is not or poorly detected by urinary antigen and molecular methods (like PCR syndromic assays that primarily target L. pneumophila and that have only recently been deployed in microbiology laboratories). Pneumonia caused by L. sainthelensi is likely underdiagnosed as a result. Clinicians should consider the possibility of non-pneumophila Legionella infection in patients with a compatible clinical presentation when microbiological diagnostic tools targeted L. pneumophila tested negative., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

We analysed 9,030 variant-specific RT-PCR tests performed on SARS-CoV-2-positive samples collected in France between 31 May and 21 June 2021. This analysis revealed rapid growth of the Delta variant in three of the 13 metropolitan French regions and estimated a +79% (95% confidence interval: 52-110%) transmission advantage compared with the Alpha variant. The next weeks will prove decisive and the magnitude of the estimated transmission advantages of the Delta variant could represent a major challenge for public health authorities.

To assess SARS-CoV-2 variants spread, we analysed 36,590 variant-specific reverse-transcription-PCR tests performed on samples from 12 April-7 May 2021 in France. In this period, contrarily to January-March 2021, variants of concern (VOC) β (B.1.351 lineage) and/or γ (P.1 lineage) had a significant transmission advantage over VOC α (B.1.1.7 lineage) in Île-de-France (15.8%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 15.5-16.2) and Hauts-de-France (17.3%; 95% CI: 15.9-18.7) regions. This is consistent with VOC β's immune evasion abilities and high proportions of prior-SARS-CoV-2-infected persons in these regions.

Variants of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 raise concerns regarding the control of coronavirus disease epidemics. We analyzed 40,000 specific reverse transcription PCR tests performed on positive samples during January 26-February 16, 2021, in France. We found high transmission advantage of variants and more advanced spread than anticipated.

Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared.

Background: The spread of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) in the Southwest Indian Ocean area (SIOA) is poorly documented. Reunion Island is a French overseas territory located close to Madagascar and connected with Southern Africa, Indian sub-continent and Europe, with several weekly flights. Here we report the results of the CPE surveillance program in Reunion Island over a six-year period., Methods: All CPE were collected between January 2011 and December 2016. Demographics and clinical data of the carrier patients were collected. We determined their susceptibility to antimicrobials, identified the carbapenemases and ESBL by PCR and sequencing, and explored their genetic relationship using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and multi-locus sequence typing., Results: A total of 61 CPEs isolated from 53 patients were retrieved in 6 public or private laboratories of the island. We found that 69.8% of CPE patients were linked to a foreign country of SIOA and that almost half of CPE cases (47.2%) reached the island through a medical evacuation. The annual number of CPE cases strongly increased over the studied period (one case in 2011 vs. 21 cases in 2016). A proportion of 17.5% of CPE isolates were non-susceptible to colistin. bla NDM was the most frequent carbapenemase (79.4%), followed by bla IMI (11.1%), and bla IMP-10 (4.8%). Autochtonous CPE cases (30.2%) harboured CPE isolates belonging to a polyclonal population., Conclusions: Because the hospital of Reunion Island is the only reference healthcare setting of the SIOA, we can reasonably estimate that its CPE epidemiology reflects that of this area. Mauritius was the main provider of foreign CPE cases (35.5%). We also showed that autochthonous isolates of CPEs are mostly polyclonal, thus unrelated to cross-transmission. This demonstrates the local spread of carbapenemase-encoding genes (i.e. bla NDM ) in a polyclonal bacterial population and raises fears that Reunion Island could contribute to the influx of NDM-carbapenemase producers into the French mainland territory.

BackgroundWith more than 300 million infections estimated annually worldwide, dengue is the most prevalent arboviral infection. On Reunion Island, after a large outbreak in 1977-78, only limited episodes of viral circulation or sporadic cases were reported till 2015.AimOur objective was to document and report on the circulation of dengue virus after the occurrence of a small outbreak during austral summer 2015/16 and until the large outbreak of 2018.MethodsBeside the mandatory notification of biologically confirmed dengue cases, additional systems of surveillance were set up: estimation of dengue-like syndrome in people seeking care by their family doctor, surveillance of emergency department visits related to dengue, surveillance of hospitalised dengue patients and deaths classifications.ResultsAfter a moderate outbreak during summer 2015/16 with 231 cases, 2017 was characterised by limited viral circulation (97 cases) which, however, persisted during the austral winter. By February 2018, the number of cases had increased and led to a peak at the beginning of May 2018. More than 6,000 cases were reported this year (dengue virus type 2 only). In addition, six deaths of dengue patients were notified.ConclusionIn 2017, the persistence of transmission during winter created favourable conditions for the emergence of an epidemic during summer 2018. After this moderate epidemic wave, the viral circulation persisted during winter 2018 for the second year, opening the door for the second wave in 2019 and for potential endemisation of the disease on Reunion Island in the near future.

The spread of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in the Southwest Indian Ocean islands is poorly known. Here we describe an outbreak of colistin-resistant Enterobacter cloacae harbouring bla IMI-1 in the French overseas department of Mayotte. Between October 2015 and January 2017, all isolates of imipenem-non-susceptible E. cloacae at Mayotte Medical Center and University Hospital of Reunion Island were screened for carbapenemase production. Positive isolates were typed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and whole-genome sequencing (WGS)-based multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and all β-lactamase genes were identified by PCR and sequencing. Resistance profiles were determined by agar diffusion and Etest. Genetic support of the bla IMI-1 gene was determined by WGS. A total of 18 E. cloacae isolates harbouring bla IMI-1 were detected in 17 patients from Mayotte. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis showed 16 of the 18 strains to be clonally related and belonging to ST820. Based on clinical data, this outbreak most likely had a community origin. The bla IMI-1 gene in the 18 isolates was carried by a new variant of an integrative mobile element involving the Xer recombinases, called EcloIMEX-8. The mcr-1-mcr-5 genes were absent from the collection. The isolates belonged to E. cloacae cluster XI, known to be colistin heteroresistant. Here we report the first outbreak of IMI-1-producing Enterobacteriaceae. IMI-1-producers may be underdetected in microbiology laboratories because of their unusual antimicrobial resistance profile (resistant to imipenem but with intermediate resistance to ertapenem and susceptible to extended-spectrum cephalosporins) and the absence of bla IMI-1 in the panel of genes targeted by molecular diagnostic kits., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

We report two cases of severe influenza infection imported by tourist patients from their country of origin and developed during travel. While studies have reported cases of influenza infections acquired during travel, here we examine two cases of severe influenza infection contracted in the country of origin that led to diagnosis and therapeutic problems in the destination country. No international recommendation exists concerning influenza vaccination before travel, and few countries recommend it for all travelers. Our study suggests that travel should be canceled when infectious signs are observed before departure. Influenza is a very common infection that is often benign, but sometimes very severe. The most severe cases include shock, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), myocarditis, rhabdomyolysis, and multiple organ failure. Management can require exceptional therapies, such as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. A number of studies have focused on influenza infection in travelers. Cases of influenza acquired during travel have been reported in this literature, but no study has examined cases of influenza imported from the country of origin and developed while abroad. The latter situation may lead to 1) diagnostic problems during the nonepidemic season or in places where diagnostic techniques are lacking and 2) therapeutic difficulties resulting from the unavailability of techniques for the management of severe influenza infection in tourist areas. Here, we report two cases of extremely severe influenza infection imported by tourists from their country of origin and developed during travel.

Background: Alphaviruses are arthropod borne RNA viruses of medical importance. Geographical expansion of mosquitoes of the Aedes genus in the past decades has been associated with major Alphavirus-associated outbreaks. Climate changes and intensification of air travels have favored vector expansion and virus dissemination in new territories leading to virus emergence not only in tropical areas but also in temperate regions. The detection of emergence is based upon surveillance networks with epidemiological and laboratory investigation., Method: A specific, sensitive and rapid screening test for genus-specific Alphavirus is critically required. To address this issue, we developed a new molecular assay targeting nsP4 gene and using a TaqMan® real time RT-PCR method for the specific detection of all major Alphavirus genus members., Results: This assay was tested for specificity using several Alphavirus species. We also tested successfully clinical sensitivity using patient's samples collected during the Chikungunya outbreak of 2005-2006 in the Indian Ocean., Conclusions: This new pan-Alphavirus molecular diagnostic tool offers great potential for exclusion diagnosis and emergence detection given its broad specificity restricted to Alphavirus genus.

Background: In 2005-2006 a major epidemics of Chikungunya disease occurred in South-West Indian Ocean islands. In Reunion Island, the magnitude of Chikungunya infection related symptoms was high and with over 38% of serological prevalence in the population. This epidemics illustrated the potential threat of emerging arboviral diseases for inhabitants of Reunion Island and elsewhere since vectors are worldwide distributed. A sentinel surveillance network was set-up to detect emerging pathogens associated with fever over 38 °C and in the absence of known etiologic causes. Leptospirosis is caused by a pathogenic spirochete of the Leptospira genus and is an endemic and recurrent seasonal disease of great concern in Reunion Island. To accurately diagnose potentially infected patients and to advise Health authorities on the presence of emerging pathogens, a rapid diagnostic test was needed that could differentiate between these 3 pathogens., Methods: A one-step multiplex real-time PCR assay was developed that can simultaneously detect RNA of Chikungunya and Dengue viruses and leptospiral DNA with good performance for a routine diagnostic use., Results: Simplex protocols already published were used with key modifications to implement a triplex assay which was set-up with a small reaction volume to improve cost efficiency., Conclusions: This approach has enabled greater diagnostic capacity in our laboratory. We established a multiplex approach validated and valuable for cost savings, and with the concurrent detection of 3 pathogens of public health concern.

The 2016 seasonal influenza in Réunion in the southern hemisphere, was dominated by influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 (possibly genogroup 6B.1). An estimated 100,500 patients with acute respiratory infection (ARI) consulted a physician (cumulative attack rate 11.9%). Sixty-six laboratory-confirmed cases (65.7/100,000 ARI consultations) were hospitalised in an intensive care unit, the highest number since 2009. Impact on intensive care units was major. Correlation between severe cases was 0.83 between Réunion and France and good for 2009 to 2015., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: None declared., (This article is copyright of The Authors, 2016.)

Background and Aim: The impact of basal core promoter (BCP) and precore (PC) mutants of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) on liver disease severity remains controversial. The aim of the present study was to screen BCP and PC mutations in 252 HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) positive carriers in France and to assess relationships between these mutations and severe fibrosis., Methods: Direct sequencing of the precore/core gene was used to detect A1762T/G1764A and G1757A mutations in the BCP and G1896A and G1899A mutations in the PC region., Results: The prevalences of A1762T/G1764A, G1757A, G1896A, and G1899A mutations were 34.1%, 38.7%, 54.9%, and 29.3% (P < 0.001), respectively. The independent predictors of severe fibrosis (≥F3 Metavir) were older age (P < 0.001), male gender (P = 0.012), elevated alanine aminotransferase (P < 0.001), and the double A1762T/G1764A mutant with no other mutations (P = 0.011). Interestingly, the association of the G1899A mutation with the double A1762T/G1764A mutant significantly counteracted the deleterious effect of the sole double A1762T/G1764A mutant (odds ratio [OR] = 0.28 vs. OR = 3.55, respectively, P = 0.028)., Conclusions: Patients with the A1762T/G1764A mutation have a higher risk of severe fibrosis. The G1899A mutation is a protective factor against severe fibrosis that counteracted the deleterious effect of the A1762T/G1764A mutation. Finally, host phenotypic and HBV genotypic markers independently predict fibrosis severity., (© 2016 Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology Foundation and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.)

Aim: To evaluate the early virological response (EVR) to combined tenofovir-lamivudine or emtricitabine regimen in HBV/HIV-co-infected patients and the long-term efficacy of tenofovir., Methods: In this retrospective monocentric study, among the 166 HIV/HBV-co-infected patients regularly followed from 2003 to 2008 at Bichat Claude Bernard Hospital, 61 patients had received, either de novo combination therapy with tenofovir and lamivudine or emtricitabine (group I, n = 15) or add-on tenofovir to lamivudine therapy (group II, n = 46). The HBV polymerase region was sequenced and analysed for all patients with available samples., Results: All 15 group I patients achieved EVR vs 32 (82%) of group II patients (P = 0.15). Seven adherent group II patients met criteria for primary non-response, but achieved delayed response (DR) to therapy. In these seven patients, when compared with the 39 group II patients, there was a trend to longer duration of lamivudine pre-treatment and to higher rate of lamivudine-resistant mutants; and HBV genotype-G proportion was higher (P = 0.026). No virological breakthrough occurred after a median of 46 months follow up., Conclusion: In these HBV/HIV-co-infected patients, first-line HBV therapy with tenofovir and emtricitabine or lamivudine was associated with EVR. However, DR to tenofovir was observed in 15% of patients who added tenofovir to lamivudine therapy, of whom four of seven (57%) had genotype G-HBV infection. No resistance was evidenced after 46 months of therapy even in patients with DR to tenofovir. At last, a good renal safety profile of TDF was observed after a median follow-up of 4 years of therapy., (© 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S.)

Background: Among 141 HIV-HBV-coinfected patients treated with tenofovir in our centre, 87% were good-responders to therapy. Seven patients showed a delayed response to tenofovir. The present study was performed to evaluate the quasispecies variability and the in vitro drug susceptibility to approved antiviral drugs of HBV genomes directly isolated from patients' sera., Methods: After purification of DNA from serum samples, full-length HBV DNA was amplified by PCR, cloned and sequenced. Drug sensitivity of HBV strains isolated from four delayed responders and five good-responders was assessed and compared to a wild-type HBV strain after transfection of the full genome into HepG2 cells., Results: Delayed responders, compared with good responders, showed a higher incidence of lamivudine-resistant mutations (71% and 35%, respectively; P=0.021) and a higher proportion of HBV genotype G (57% versus 16%, respectively; P=0.026). Clonal analysis demonstrated a higher variability of HBV quasispecies in delayed reponders than in good responders. In vitro analysis showed a lower efficacy of adefovir and tenofovir in delayed reponders. Furthermore, HBV genotype G strains showed a mild to weak susceptibility to tenofovir., Conclusions: The reason for the slow decline in HBV DNA level observed during therapy in delayed responders is not clear. Delayed responders showed higher quasispecies variability, a higher proportion of HBV genotype G and a mild in vitro decreased susceptibility to tenofovir and adefovir. A combination of these factors in heavily treatment-experienced HIV-infected patients could explain the lower tenofovir activity. These patients must be closely monitored to prevent prospective emergence of resistance to approved antiviral drugs.

Objectives: ANRS 139 TRIO trial was a phase II noncomparative trial that evaluated in highly experienced patients, a combination of raltegravir, etravirine and darunavir boosted with ritonavir. We analyzed emergence of resistant viruses at the time of virological failure and investigated the impact of baseline integrase polymorphisms on virological failure occurrence., Methods: Bulk sequencing of protease, reverse transcriptase and integrase genes was performed for 103 patients at baseline and 14 patients at the time of virological failure. Additionally, integrase clonal analyses were performed at baseline and at virological failure in patients with successful integrase gene amplification. Impact of baseline integrase polymorphisms on virological failure occurrence was analyzed using Fisher exact and Wilcoxon tests., Results: In the 14 failing patients median viral load at virological failure was 90 copies/ml (interquartile range = 60-783). Emergence of darunavir and etravirine resistance mutations was observed at virological failure in only one and three patients, respectively. Raltegravir resistance mutations were found neither at baseline nor at the time of virologic failure. Integrase clonal analyses showed neither the presence nor the selection of minority variants carrying raltegravir resistance mutations at baseline or at virological failure. No impact of baseline integrase polymorphisms was observed on virological failure either at week 24 or at week 48., Conclusion: Virological failure occurred in a small proportion of patients with low viral load. No raltegravir resistance mutations were observed using bulk sequencing or clonal analyses, and darunavir and etravirine resistance-associated mutations were detected in only one and three patients, respectively at virological failure. No impact of baseline integrase polymorphism was observed on virological failure occurrence.

Human immunodeficiency viruses HIV-1 and HIV-2 are the results of multi-interspecies transmissions from simian virus to humans. HIV-1 viruses are very divergent and are classified in three groups: M, N and O. The group M is subdivided in nine subtypes and numerous Circulating Recombinant Forms. In 1996, protease inhibitors and HAART disposal have modified the prognostic of the HIV infection. However, one of the major problems is the emergence of antiretroviral resistance. A major advance from the last year is the access to antiretroviral in resources limited countries. On the other hand, the development of a vaccine is today hypothetic.

We determine phenotypic susceptibility of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) isolates to amprenavir, atazanavir, darunavir, indinavir, lopinavir, nelfinavir, saquinavir, and tipranavir. Saquinavir, lopinavir, and darunavir are potent against wild-type HIV-2 isolates and should be preferred as first-line options for HIV-2-infected patients. Other protease inhibitors are less active against HIV-2 than against HIV-1.