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In the literature on growth, infrastructure, in addition to other factors, is identified as a determining element in the growth of regions from a long-term perspective. However, there are few studies where the unit of analysis is disaggregated down to the regional level. Therefore, this research aims to explore the importance of infrastructure (social and economic) in the economic growth of Ecuador´s provinces. The methodology used leads to the calculation of a Global Productive Infrastructure Index (GPII) composed of two categories: Social Productive Infrastructure (SIP), and Economic Productive Infrastructure (EPI) (Hansen, 1965). In addition, econometric estimates are made of the relationship between infrastructure and economic growth, the latter measured by the Gross Added Value of each province. The results of the empirical models used indicate that the economic productive infrastructure is essential for the economic growth of Ecuador´s provinces. It is made up of energy infrastructure, transport infrastructure and communications infrastructure, of which the last two are the most representative and affect growth directly. In terms of the disaggregation of indices, it is observed that, in general, the provinces with the highest economic and global index and, therefore, the highest growth are the provinces of Pichincha, Azuay and Guayas.

La presente investigación analiza las disparidades territoriales a escala interregional a través de la aproximación y construcción del Índice de Desarrollo Regional Latinoamericano (IDERE LATAM) para el caso ecuatoriano. El índice está constituido por ocho dimensiones, algunas de ellas no tradicionales, que lo destaca con respecto a otros índices. Los resultados sugieren que, a nivel global, el desarrollo es medio, medio alto y alto; específicamente, Galápagos y Azuay presentan los niveles de desarrollo más elevados. El análisis de las diferentes dimensiones permitió identificar que las brechas interregionales son marcadas en medio ambiente y bienestar y cohesión; son moderadas en economía, educación, instituciones, seguridad y género; mientras que, son reducidas en salud. En general, las provincias reflejan los mejores niveles de desarrollo en educación, salud y género. Por el contrario, los peores desempeños se localizan en economía e instituciones; ambiente también tiene un bajo desarrollo (con la excepción de Galápagos).

El objetivo de la investigación es determinar los factores que influyen en el envío de remesas (en dólares) de Estados Unidos y España a Ecuador, en el periodo 2000 – 2020. La metodología empleada son los modelos de serie con corrección de errores estándar, tendencia secular o de largo plazo. Los resultados muestran que el crecimiento de la actividad económica, medida por medio del Producto Interno Bruto per cápita, empleo, salarios, tipo de cambio (euro/dólar), aumenta la remisión de estos flujos a Ecuador y consecuentemente el desarrollo local. Es decir, mientras estas economías registren tasas de crecimiento positivas, los migrantes ecuatorianos tendrían más oportunidades de aumentar sus ingresos y, por tanto, enviar mayores cantidades de remesas hacia sus localidades. En este escenario, los flujos de remesas son determinados por ciertas variables macroeconómicas (crecimiento del PIB, salario, empleo y tipo de cambio) de los países anfitriones que afectan directamente a los ingresos de los emigrados.

Las remesas que reciben el Ecuador son muy importantes para las algunas de las economías regionales. Aunque al inicio de la pandemia se estimaba que las remesas disminuirían, en este país las remesas provenientes del exterior aumentaron. Sin embargo, es necesario considerar su aporte en este año de crisis en las diferentes regiones. Para ello con una metodología de trimestralización de algunas variables y el uso de cuadrantes se establece un diagrama de que permite observar el efecto de las remesas en las regiones, dependientes de estas, como mecanismo contracíclico durante la crisis del 2020.

The results confirm that in scenario 1, losses will amount to 1.327 million US dollars; in scenario 2, to 1.600 million USD; while for scenario 3, the country will stop receiving more than 1.700 million USD. Eight sectors of the economy will suffer 95% of the impact on job loss: the food and beverage service stands out from the rest, since 77 out of 10 jobs lost will come from those types of activities. The two other sectors that would suffer significant impacts would be trade and accommodation activities, which account for 8% and 5%, respectively, of the total number of jobs lost.

This investigation seeks to explore the importance of agglomeration mechanisms in the location decisions of new manufacturing firms in Ecuador, based on sector and canton level data for the 2000&ndash, 2010 period. A model is proposed to explore the relative importance of agglomeration mechanisms in location decisions of new manufacturing companies, a regression is performed using instrumental variables, the econometric estimation is developed, and an identification strategy is proposed. The results of the empirical analysis show that the learning mechanism, and history, have a positive and significant impact on the creation of new firms. An increase of 1% in the transfer of knowledge in the industries and cantons of the country is correlated with the increase in the location of new firms in the order of 9.2%. In turn, history has a positive and significant effect on the creation of new firms, in industries and cantons characterized by a past industrial environment. Even when the learning mechanism and history are controlled by provinces, sectors, and cantons, they continue to be the most important determinants of the location of new firms. This evidence could be attributed to the public investment in Ecuadorian industry in recent years. In this sense, the contribution of this work is found in the empirical distinction of the mechanism that favors or inhibits the location decisions of new companies. The analysis was replicated for a three-digit sectorial disaggregation level, to verify whether the agglomeration mechanisms operate differently on a different industrial scale. The results suggested that there were no differences to be considered. When the analysis was done excluding the cantons of Quito, Guayaquil, and Cuenca, given their high representation in terms of the birth of industries and employment, the results were consistent with those previously mentioned. However, it is so only with respect to history, which in this case accounts for 38.8% of the birth of firms, whereas, matching accounts for an order of 38.9% in the period of analysis. This result is explained in the context of the country&rsquo, s industrial policy.

The aim of this research work is to analyze growth and convergence processes in the service sector and its large groups, market, and non-market services, at the regional level in Ecuador by taking the labor productivity variable as a reference. The methodology used is an analysis of distributive dynamics of the data, applying the non-parametric method of Kernel density functions from a mathematical economics approach. The results obtained show that the service sector has non-alarming levels of inequality, its trend over time is increasing. When disaggregating the data, it was observed that non-market services show a rapid growth in inequality. In contrast, market services show greater stability during the period analyzed. Regarding intra-distribution dynamics for the service sector and its subsectors, in the long term, poor regions improve, while rich regions deteriorate. However, deterioration of advanced regions is less intense in non-market services.

The objective of this research is to analyze the scientific production indexed in the international Scopus database on the subject of &ldquo, corporate social responsibility and corporate social performance&rdquo, in small and medium-sized enterprises. In the literature, it is currently possible to observe how large corporations undertake social responsibility actions as a usual practice. However, in the case of small and medium-sized enterprises, the reality is different due to their high heterogeneity. To fulfil the proposed objective, a bibliometric analysis is carried out, identifying 277 articles on the subject. It is observed that scientific production is concentrated in a period of 18 years (2000&ndash, 2018), the majority being qualitative studies.

espanolEcuador experimenta un acelerado proceso de urbanizacion en las ultimas decadas, causado en parte, por la migracion interna. Esto ha provocado una urbanizacion sin eficiencia ya que la mayor parte de los ingresos provienen de la actividad primaria exportadora y no de las actividades industriales urbanas. En este contexto, el objetivo de esta investigacion es estimar los determinantes de la migracion interna en Ecuador usando modelos de eleccion discreta. Los resultados muestran que la fuerza laboral no necesariamente emigra por factores monetarios y que las dotaciones de capital humano reducen la probabilidad de migrar. Una implicacion de politica publica que se deriva de la presente investigacion, es que la migracion interna se puede disminuir incrementando la inversion en educacion en las regiones perifericas e impulsando la creacion de empleo rural. EnglishEcuador is experiencing an accelerated process of urbanization in recent decades, partly caused by internal migration. This has caused a development without efficiency because most of the re-venue comes from primary-export activity rather than urban industrial activities. In this context, the objective of this research is to estimate the determinants of internal migration in Ecuador using discrete choice models. The results show that the labor force will not necessarily migrate by monetary factors and human capital endowments reduce the probability of migrating. A poli-cy implication derived from this research is that internal migration can be reduced by increasing investment in education in peripheral regions and boosting rural employment.

Currently, obtaining evidence of the correlation between economic growth and environmental deterioration is of great relevance. Due to an increase in economic activity, an increase in CO2 emissions and its possible effects on the current climate change is very worrying. The studies that analyze this correlation serve as a basis for the awareness of countries and the establishment of policies worldwide to curb such deterioration. The objective of this research is achieved through a panel data model and spatial econometric techniques to address the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation in Ecuador. A regression model is proposed where the deterioration dependent variable is CO2 emissions, which is also an independent variable for the provincial gross value added. Poverty and inequality are considered as control variables in order to observe their effects on CO2 emission. The results are coherent with what is stated by the theory and describe an inverted U-shaped curve. They also show that the generation of pollutant emissions is directly related to the growth of the vehicle fleet and inversely related with the population&rsquo, s schooling levels. The spatial effects are significant and the spatial impact multipliers indicate that the strongest direct and indirect effect is the one caused by the generation of car emissions per capita. This variable is relevant for the design of public policy aimed at improving environmental quality.

The objective of this investigation is to study the role of agglomeration economies (manufacturing) in urban employment growth, as a proxy for economic growth, between 1980 and 2010 in Ecuador. The three measures of agglomeration-specialization, diversity, and density-are tested to determine their effect on employment growth in industries. The empirical analysis is based on firm- and city-level data from manufacturing activities. A model is proposed to estimate the effect of agglomeration economies on the growth of employment and a regression is conducted using instrumental variables. In particular, the two-stage least squares (2SLS) estimator is used. We conclude that localization economies measured by a specialization index have a positive impact on the growth of employment in the period analyzed. The results are similar to those obtained by other work carried out both in developed and developing countries.

Social exclusion is a major concern in developed economies and it is of great importance in developing countries. Exclusion directly impacts different aspects of the individual’s well-being making social exclusion a phenomenon of multidisciplinary interest. Therefore, the objective of this research is to analyze the social exclusion in Ecuador considering one of its dimensions, in this case housing and its conditions. For this purpose, a group of housing indicators is selected and, from them, a composite indicator is constructed. This composite indicator reflects the level of social exclusion of the Ecuadorian population at the national and regional (provincial) levels. Data used come from the National Survey of Employment, Unemployment and Sub-employment (ENEMDU), which was drawn up by the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC) for the years 2014 and 2017. The main results indicate that the exclusion situation improves nationally and regionally (in all provinces). It can also be seen that the levels of social exclusion are higher in the rural area and in the Ecuadorian Amazon provinces.

While there is a progressive ageing of the population, we are witnessing a rapid development of new information and communication technologies (ICTs). Although for most of society this technology is within reach, there are population segments for whom access is limited, especially adults who are considered of old age. Due to the relevance that the relationship between ICTs and older adults acquires in today’s society, it is necessary to carry out an analysis of the scientific literature in order to understand the knowledge structure of this field. In this research, a comparative bibliometric analysis of 172 documents published in the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases was carried out until 2018 and is complemented by a co-citation analysis. The results show that this subject is incipient and is in its exponential growth stage, with two thirds of the production concentrated in the 2012–2018 period. Four out of five authors are transient with a single authorship and the collaboration level is high. The most productive country is Germany followed by the United States and Australia.

The objective of this research is to examine growth and convergence processes in the provinces of Ecuador, considering sectoral productivity as an analysis variable. To do so, evidence of the productivity of the agricultural, secondary and service sectors is presented, and by applying the non-parametric method of density functions of the kernel, the complete distribution of the data is analyzed. The results obtained indicate that territorial inequality in Ecuador has very different behavior depending on the sectors of the economy. It is noted that inequality in terms of productivity is very high in the agricultural sector, it is at an average level in the secondary sector, and is less intense in the service sector. In the long-term, the overall balance is that sectoral inequality decreased among Ecuadorian provinces. However, there are two processes differentiated in time, in the first phase, inequality decreases more rapidly and in the second phase, it even increases in some sectors, as in the case of secondary sector returns.

The global economic crisis in 2008 impacts Latin America in a context in which a group of progressive governments had succeeded in managing the destiny of their countries. This paper analyses, at subnational level, the experiences of three countries, in the areas of employment and income inequality: Brazil and Ecuador, in which economic policies were reoriented towards a strong social approach, and which are compared with Mexico, a nation in which the Neo-liberal model was reinforced. The results enable to highlight that while inequality in wage income has been reduced in all those countries as a whole that has not been the case for specific regions of those nations., La crisis económica en 2008 se presenta en América Latina en un contexto en el cual un grupo de gobiernos progresistas han logrado el manejo del destino de sus países. En este trabajo se analizan a nivel subnacional las experiencias de tres países en el área de empleo y desigualdad del ingreso; Brasil y el Ecuador en los cuales se reorientó la política económica dándole un contenido social y son comparados con México, nación en la cual se reforzó el modelo neoliberal. Los resultados permiten señalar que, si bien la desigualdad en el ingreso salarial se ha reducido, no es así para regiones específicas de dichas naciones.

The increasing popularity of religious tourism in the last century is undeniable. This type of tourism presents a complex conceptualization process due to the religious, spiritual, and cultural connotations. From this perspective, the main objective of this chapter was to develop a characterization of the population dedicated to the retail trade of religious souvenirs in the parish of El Cisne, where the pilgrimage of the Virgin of “El Cisne” takes place every year, in the canton Loja. The methodology used for this study centered on a socio-economic characterization of the owners of these retail stores. These retailers were classified into two comparative groups, which were used to determine the variables that had the greatest impact on the quality of life for them and for their families. Among the main results, it was highlighted that this retail activity came from a traditional practice, from whom a very large number of them were not affiliated to any social security system. There was also evidence of the high participation of women as owners of these businesses.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of employment in creative industries on the regional and national economic growth of Ecuador. The methodology used is a panel econometric model in which the temporary and structural dimensions considered to meet the proposed objective are addressed. The inputs of a basic production function were considered and the influence of creative employment was estimated as a proxy indicator of the work factor and of tax collections as a proxy of the capital factor on regional production for the years 2009 and 2014. Noteworthy is that in the main findings of this research, the analysis of the correspondence of the variables used and the growth show a significant influence of creative employment on regional production and development. The concentration and heterogeneity of employment indicators in the territory is also significant, with the most favoured regions being the same ones whose participation in national production is significant, where the three most important urban axes of the country are also found, which are the leading territories regarding these indicators. Special situations are shown for the rest of the provinces.

Se realiza en primera instancia una caracterizacion de los ecuatorianos que se encuentran en Espana e Italia. Posteriormente se presenta evidencia de como la crisis mundial ha afectado sus condiciones laborales y sociales. Se concluye que existe una baja en sus salarios y que la crisis ha afectado mas a los emigrantes que a las emigrantes; estas ultimas han perdido menos puestos de trabajo y sufren menos desempleo. Se evidencia que el numero de retornados ecuatorianos hacia su pais no es significativo. Finalmente se establece que las consecuencias de la crisis para el colectivo ecuatoriano son mas severas en Espana.

The objective of this research is to identify from a spatial and temporal perspective the territories that are located in a &ldquo, poverty trap&rdquo, scenario. This is a scenario that does not allow overcoming the conditions and determinants that gave rise to this precarious situation, creating a vicious circle where the conditions of poverty endure through time. The methodology applied is an exploratory analysis of spatial dependence through Moran&rsquo, s scatterplot and local indicators of spatial association (LISA) maps to visualize the spatial clusters of poverty. The database used is that of the population and housing censuses of 1990, 2001, and 2010 at the cantonal level. The results determine that 73 cantons were in a poverty trap over the period 1990&ndash, 2001, while from 2001&ndash, 2010, there were 75 cantons in this situation, which were located mainly in the provinces of Esmeraldas, Manab&iacute, and Loja.

The regional economic development perspective has been present in various forms and scopes in Latin America. This article proposes the analysis of Ecuador, a country with very particular historical, economic and political conditions that constructed very specific ways for the process of designing and implementing regional policy. The goal is to identify and scope that public policy had in the context of adopted economic development models considering the strategies and approaches that the government used to address regional problems and territorial economic development. La perspectiva regional del desarrollo económico ha estado presente bajo distintas modalidades y alcances en los países de América Latina. En el presente trabajo se lleva a cabo un examen de Ecuador, país que bajo sus propias condiciones históricas, económicas y políticas planteó formas específicas en el diseño e instrumentación de su política regional. Se trata de ubicar las etapas y alcances que tuvo la política pública en el contexto de los modelos de desarrollo económico adoptados, considerando estrategias e instrumentos que el Estado planteó para afrontar las problemáticas regionales y territoriales del desarrollo económico.

The understanding of the historical role of the development within Ecuador, and primarily at the regional level in the province of Loja, is a line of research that has a long journey to discover, study and above all rescue. When approaching the figure of the hacienda, a thought revives among the population in which these spaces are related to large tracts of land, in which precarious work predominated. The purpose of this study focuses on the rescue of the history and identification of the finance structure used within the Casanga estate located within the Paltas canton of the province of Loja, from which a pilot proposal for a tourist route is developed heritage focused on the knowledge of local history and the enhancement of the treasury remains that are still maintained of what was the Casanga estate. Among the main results highlights the recovery of this hacienda as a fundamental element for the recovery of the cultural identity of the canton inhabitants in addition to highlighting the heritage tourism potential that house the canton.

Resumen: El presente estudio tiene como objetivos analizar el efecto de la crisis económica en España, e identificar los determinantes por los cuales los migrantes desean retornar a Ecuador. Para ello se realizó un estudio de campo y 96 entrevistas a la población inmigrante en Madrid que se encuentra en edad de trabajar y se utilizaron modelos econométricos de elección discreta para su verificación y comprobación de resultados. La crisis ha afectado más a los ecuatorianos que a las ecuatorianas, estas últimas han perdido menos puestos de trabajo y sufren menos desempleo. En general se han encontrado diferencias significativas para la decisión de retorno al Ecuador, entre ellas: género, remuneración, movilidad laboral y bienes que poseen en el país de origen. Palabras clave: migración, retorno, Ecuador, España. Resumo: O presente estudo tem como objetivo analizar o efeito da crise econômica na Espanha, e identificar as determinantes pelas quais os imigrantes desejam retornar ao Equador. Para isso se realizou um estudo de campo e 96 entrevistas com a população imigrante de Madrid que se encontra em idade de trabalho e se utilizou modelos econométricos de escolha discreta que apontou para sua verificação e comprovação de resultados. A crise afetou mais aos equatorianos que às equatorianas, estas últimas perderam menos postos de trabalho e sofrem menos desemprego. Em geral encontramos diferenças significativas para a decisão de retorno ao Equador, entre elas: gênero, remuneração; mobilidade trabalhista e bens que posuem no país de origem. Palavras-chaves: migração, retorno, Equador, Espanha. Abstract: The following study objective is to analyze the effect of the economic crisis in Spain and to identify determining factors for migrants to wish to return to Ecuador. The sample originate on a field study and 96 interviews to working-age Ecuadorian immigrants in Madrid. The analysis consist on discrete-choice econometric models for validation and verification of results, which show that the economic crisis has affected in greater degree to male than to female Ecuadorians, thus female Ecuadorians suffer less job losses and unemployment. In general, there are significant differences for taking the return decision such as: genre, remuneration, labor mobility and real state in the country of origin. Key words: migration, return migration, Ecuador, Spain.