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The Kisseynew domain (KD) is the largest component of the Paleoproterozoic Trans-Hudson orogen (THO) in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. It is bounded to the north by the Lynn Lake – Leaf Rapids (LL-LR) domain and to the south by the Glennie – Flin Flon (G-FF) complex. The THO was the focus of one of the study areas of Lithoprobe, Canada’s national Earth science research project (1984–2005). To further investigate the crustal structure of the KD and its bounding domains, this study reprocesses reflection line S3a across its northern boundary, analyses four 2.5-D gravity profiles, carries out 3-D gravity inversions for two areas, and replicates results from reflection lines 7 and 10 across the southern boundary of the KD. The reprocessed seismic section enhances the continuity of reflections within the crust. The reflectivity is representative of the complex tectonic development of the boundary zone and clearly identifies a subsurface deformation zone consistent with the boundary. The reflection section also shows that a lower plate (at about 30 to 50 km depth), interpreted as remnant lower crust of the G-FF complex, extends 30 km further northward than in the original section. Lines 7 and 10 illustrate the complex nature of the transition from the KD to the G-FF complex. The gravity analyses show that the variability and complexities of the boundary region between the LL-LR domain and KD, and the G-FF complex and KD, as indicated by the geological and Bouguer gravity maps, extend at depth throughout the crust.

EON-ROSE (Earth-System Observing Network - Réseau d’Observation du Système terrestrE) is a new initiative for a pan-Canadian research collaboration to holistically examine Earth systems from the ionosphere into the core. The Canadian Cordillera Array (CC Array) is the pilot phase, and will extend across the Cordillera from the Beaufort Sea to the U.S. border. The vision for EON-ROSE is to install a network of telemetered observatories to monitor solid Earth, environmental and atmospheric processes. EON-ROSE is an inclusive, combined effort of Canadian universities, federal, provincial and territorial government agencies, industry, and international collaborators. Brainstorming sessions and several workshops have been held since May 2016. The first station will be installed at Kluane Lake Research Station in southwestern Yukon during the summer of 2018. The purpose of this report is to provide a framework for continued discussion and development.RÉSUMÉEON-ROSE (Earth-System Observing Network - Réseau d’Observation du Système terrestrE) est une nouvelle initiative de collaboration de recherche pancanadienne visant à étudier de manière holistique les systèmes terrestres, depuis l’ionosphère jusqu’au noyau. Le Réseau canadien de la cordillère (CC Array) en est la phase pilote, laquelle couvrira toute la Cordillère, de la mer de Beaufort jusqu’à la frontière étasunienne. L’objectif d’EON-ROSE est d’installer un réseau d’observatoires télémétriques pour suivre en continu les processusterrestres, environnementaux et atmosphériques. EON-ROSE est un effort combiné et inclusif des universités canadiennes, des organismes gouvernementaux fédéraux, provinciaux et territoriaux, de l’industrie et de collaborateurs internationaux. Des séances de remue-méninges et plusieurs ateliers ont été tenus depuis mai 2016. La première station sera installée à la station de recherche du lac Kluane, dans le sud-ouest du Yukon, au cours de l’été 2018. Le but du présent rapport est de fournir un cadre de discussion et de développement continu.

Lithoprobe (1984–2005), Canada’s national, collaborative, multidisciplinary, Earth Science research project, investigated the structure and evolution of the Canadian landmass and its margins. It was a highly successful project that redefined the nature of Earth science research in Canada. One of many contributions deriving from the project was the demonstration by example that Earth scientists from geophysics and geology, including all applicable sub-disciplines within these general study areas, must work together to achieve thorough and comprehensive interpretations of all available data sets. In Part 1, this statement was exemplified through studies involving lithospheric structures. In Part 2, it is exemplified by summarizing interpretations from six exploration-related studies derived from journal publications. In the first example, subsurface structures associated with the Guichon Creek batholith in south-central British Columbia, which hosts porphyry copper and molybdenum deposits, are better defined and related to different geological phases of the batholith. Reprocessed seismic reflection data and 2.5-D and 3-D inversions of magnetic and gravity data are combined with detailed geological mapping and drillhole information to generate the revised and improved subsurface interpretation. Research around the Bell Allard volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit in the Matagami region of northern Quebec provides the second example. A seismic reflection line over the deposit shortly after it was discovered by drilling, aided by core and geophysical logs, was acquired to test whether the deposit could be imaged. Direct detection of the ore body from the seismic section would be difficult if its location were not already known; however, structural characteristics that can be tied to lithologies from boreholes and logs were well identified. Nickel deposits and associated structures in the Thompson belt at the western limit of the Superior Province in northern Manitoba were the focus of seismic and electromagnetic (EM) studies combined with geology and physical property measurements. The combined seismic/EM image indicates that the rocks of the prospective Ospwagan Group, which have low resistivity, extend southeastward beneath the Archean gneiss and that structural culminations control the subsurface geometry of the Ospwagan Group. The Sudbury structure in Ontario is famous for its nickel deposits, the largest in the world, which formed as the result of a catastrophic meteorite impact. To help reconcile some of the enigmas and apparent contradictions surrounding studies of the structure and to develop more effective geophysical techniques to locate new deposits, Lithoprobe partnered with industry to carry out geophysical surveys combined with the extensive geological information available. A revised structural model for the Sudbury structure was generated and a 3-D seismic reflection survey identified a nickel deposit, known from drilling results, prior to any mine development. The Athabasca Basin of northwestern Saskatchewan and northeastern Alberta is one of the world’s most prolific producers of uranium from its characteristically high-grade unconformity-type deposits and is the only current uranium producer in Canada. An extensive database of geology, drillhole data and physical properties exists. Working with industry collaborators, Lithoprobe demonstrated the value of high-resolution seismic for imaging the unconformity and faults associated with the deposits. The final example involves a unique seismic reflection experiment to image the diamondiferous Snap Lake kimberlite dyke in the Slave Province of the Northwest Territories. The opportunity to study geological samples of the kimberlite dyke and surrounding rocks and to ground-truth the seismic results with drillhole data made available by the two industry collaborators enabled a case history study that was highly successful.RÉSUMÉLithoprobe (1984-2005), ce projet de recherche pancanadien, multidisciplinaire et concerté en sciences de la Terre, a étudié la structure et l'évolution de la croûte continentale canadienne et de ses marges. Ça a été un projet très réussi et qui a redéfini la nature de la recherche en sciences de la Terre au Canada. L'une des nombreuses retombées de ce projet a démontré par l'exemple que les spécialistes des sciences de la Terre en géophysique et en géologie, y compris toutes les sous-disciplines applicables dans ces domaines d'étude généraux, doivent travailler de concert afin de parvenir à une interprétation exhaustive de tous les ensembles de données disponibles. Dans la partie 1, cette approche s'est concrétisée par des études portant sur les structures lithosphériques. Dans la partie 2, elle a produit un résumé des interprétations tirées de six études liées à l'exploration à partir de publications dans des revues scientifiques. Dans le premier exemple, les structures souterraines associées au batholite du ruisseau Guichon, dans le centre-sud de la Colombie-Britannique, et qui renferme des gisements porphyriques de cuivre et de molybdène, sont maintenant mieux définies et mieux reliées aux différentes phases géologiques du batholite. Un retraitement des données de sismique réflexion, et d’inversion magnétique et gravimétrique 2,5-D et 3-D combiné à une cartographie géologique détaillée et à des données de forage ont permis une interprétation révisée et améliorée du de subsurface. La recherche autour du gisement de sulfures massifs volcanogéniques de Bell Allard de la région de Matagami, dans le nord du Québec, est un deuxième exemple. Un levé de sismique réflexion réalisé au-dessus du gisement, peu après sa découverte par forage, couplé avec des diagraphies géophysiques et de carottes, a été réalisé pour vérifier si l'ensemble pouvait donner une image du gisement. La détection directe du gisement de minerai à partir de la coupe sismique serait difficile si son emplacement n'était pas déjà connu; cependant, les caractéristiques structurales qui peuvent être liées aux lithologies déduites des forages et des diagraphies ont été bien définies. Les gisements de nickel et les structures qui y sont reliées dans la bande de Thompson, à la limite ouest de la province du Supérieur, dans le nord du Manitoba, ont fait l'objet d'études sismiques et électromagnétiques (EM), combinés à des mesures de caractéristiques géologiques et physiques. L'image sismique/EM combinée indique que les roches du groupe d’intérêt d’Ospwagan, lesquelles ont une résistivité faible, s'étendent vers le sud-est sous le gneiss archéen et, les culminations structurales contrôlent la géométrie souterraine du groupe d’Ospwagan. La structure de Sudbury, en Ontario, est réputée pour ses gisements de nickel, les plus importants au monde, lesquels se sont formés à la suite d'un impact météoritique catastrophique. Pour aider à comprendre certaines des énigmes et résoudre d’apparentes contradictions entourant les études de la structure, et pour développer des techniques géophysiques plus efficaces afin de localiser de nouveaux gisements, Lithoprobe s'est associé à l'entreprise privée pour réaliser des levés géophysiques, et les comparer aux très nombreuses informations géologiques disponibles. Une révision du modèle structural du gisement de Sudbury, ajouté à un levé sismique réflexion tridimensionnelle, ont permis de circonscrire un gisement de nickel, avant tout autre travail de développement minier. Le bassin de l'Athabasca, dans le nord-ouest de la Saskatchewan et le nord-est de l'Alberta, est l'un des producteurs d'uranium les plus prolifiques au monde provenant de gisements à haute teneur de type discordant, et est le seul producteur d'uranium au Canada. Une volumineuse base de données sur la géologie, les forages et les propriétés physiques est disponible. En collaboration avec des entreprises privées, Lithoprobe a démontré la valeur de la sismique à haute résolution pour l'imagerie de la discordance et des failles associées aux gisements. Le dernier exemple est celui d'une expérience de sismique réflexion unique visant à représenter le dyke de kimberlite diamantifère du lac Snap dans la province des Esclaves, dans les Territoires du Nord-Ouest. L'occasion d'étudier des échantillons géologiques du dyke de kimberlite, et des roches environnantes, et de valider les résultats sismiques à l'aide des données de forage mises à disposition par les deux partenaires privés, a permis une étude de cas très fructueuse.

Lithoprobe (1984–2005), Canada’s national, collaborative, multidisciplinary, Earth Science research project, investigated the structure and evolution of the Canadian landmass and its margins. It was a highly successful project that redefined the nature of Earth science research in Canada. One of many contributions deriving from the project was the demonstration by example that Earth scientists from geophysics and geology, including all applicable sub-disciplines within these general study areas, must work together to achieve thorough and comprehensive interpretations of all available data sets. In Part 1, this statement was exemplified through studies involving lithospheric structures. In Part 2, it is exemplified by summarizing interpretations from six exploration-related studies derived from journal publications. In the first example, subsurface structures associated with the Guichon Creek batholith in south-central British Columbia, which hosts porphyry copper and molybdenum deposits, are better defined and related to different geological phases of the batholith. Reprocessed seismic reflection data and 2.5-D and 3-D inversions of magnetic and gravity data are combined with detailed geological mapping and drillhole information to generate the revised and improved subsurface interpretation. Research around the Bell Allard volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit in the Matagami region of northern Quebec provides the second example. A seismic reflection line over the deposit shortly after it was discovered by drilling, aided by core and geophysical logs, was acquired to test whether the deposit could be imaged. Direct detection of the ore body from the seismic section would be difficult if its location were not already known; however, structural characteristics that can be tied to lithologies from boreholes and logs were well identified. Nickel deposits and associated structures in the Thompson belt at the western limit of the Superior Province in northern Manitoba were the focus of seismic and electromagnetic (EM) studies combined with geology and physical property measurements. The combined seismic/EM image indicates that the rocks of the prospective Ospwagan Group, which have low resistivity, extend southeastward beneath the Archean gneiss and that structural culminations control the subsurface geometry of the Ospwagan Group. The Sudbury structure in Ontario is famous for its nickel deposits, the largest in the world, which formed as the result of a catastrophic meteorite impact. To help reconcile some of the enigmas and apparent contradictions surrounding studies of the structure and to develop more effective geophysical techniques to locate new deposits, Lithoprobe partnered with industry to carry out geophysical surveys combined with the extensive geological information available. A revised structural model for the Sudbury structure was generated and a 3-D seismic reflection survey identified a nickel deposit, known from drilling results, prior to any mine development. The Athabasca Basin of northwestern Saskatchewan and northeastern Alberta is one of the world’s most prolific producers of uranium from its characteristically high-grade unconformity-type deposits and is the only current uranium producer in Canada. An extensive database of geology, drillhole data and physical properties exists. Working with industry collaborators, Lithoprobe demonstrated the value of high-resolution seismic for imaging the unconformity and faults associated with the deposits. The final example involves a unique seismic reflection experiment to image the diamondiferous Snap Lake kimberlite dyke in the Slave Province of the Northwest Territories. The opportunity to study geological samples of the kimberlite dyke and surrounding rocks and to ground-truth the seismic results with drillhole data made available by the two industry collaborators enabled a case history study that was highly successful. RESUME Lithoprobe (1984-2005), ce projet de recherche pancanadien, multidisciplinaire et concerte en sciences de la Terre, a etudie la structure et l'evolution de la croute continentale canadienne et de ses marges. Ca a ete un projet tres reussi et qui a redefini la nature de la recherche en sciences de la Terre au Canada. L'une des nombreuses retombees de ce projet a demontre par l'exemple que les specialistes des sciences de la Terre en geophysique et en geologie, y compris toutes les sous-disciplines applicables dans ces domaines d'etude generaux, doivent travailler de concert afin de parvenir a une interpretation exhaustive de tous les ensembles de donnees disponibles. Dans la partie 1, cette approche s'est concretisee par des etudes portant sur les structures lithospheriques. Dans la partie 2, elle a produit un resume des interpretations tirees de six etudes liees a l'exploration a partir de publications dans des revues scientifiques. Dans le premier exemple, les structures souterraines associees au batholite du ruisseau Guichon, dans le centre-sud de la Colombie-Britannique, et qui renferme des gisements porphyriques de cuivre et de molybdene, sont maintenant mieux definies et mieux reliees aux differentes phases geologiques du batholite. Un retraitement des donnees de sismique reflexion, et d’inversion magnetique et gravimetrique 2,5-D et 3-D combine a une cartographie geologique detaillee et a des donnees de forage ont permis une interpretation revisee et amelioree du de subsurface. La recherche autour du gisement de sulfures massifs volcanogeniques de Bell Allard de la region de Matagami, dans le nord du Quebec, est un deuxieme exemple. Un leve de sismique reflexion realise au-dessus du gisement, peu apres sa decouverte par forage, couple avec des diagraphies geophysiques et de carottes, a ete realise pour verifier si l'ensemble pouvait donner une image du gisement. La detection directe du gisement de minerai a partir de la coupe sismique serait difficile si son emplacement n'etait pas deja connu; cependant, les caracteristiques structurales qui peuvent etre liees aux lithologies deduites des forages et des diagraphies ont ete bien definies. Les gisements de nickel et les structures qui y sont reliees dans la bande de Thompson, a la limite ouest de la province du Superieur, dans le nord du Manitoba, ont fait l'objet d'etudes sismiques et electromagnetiques (EM), combines a des mesures de caracteristiques geologiques et physiques. L'image sismique/EM combinee indique que les roches du groupe d’interet d’Ospwagan, lesquelles ont une resistivite faible, s'etendent vers le sud-est sous le gneiss archeen et, les culminations structurales controlent la geometrie souterraine du groupe d’Ospwagan. La structure de Sudbury, en Ontario, est reputee pour ses gisements de nickel, les plus importants au monde, lesquels se sont formes a la suite d'un impact meteoritique catastrophique. Pour aider a comprendre certaines des enigmes et resoudre d’apparentes contradictions entourant les etudes de la structure, et pour developper des techniques geophysiques plus efficaces afin de localiser de nouveaux gisements, Lithoprobe s'est associe a l'entreprise privee pour realiser des leves geophysiques, et les comparer aux tres nombreuses informations geologiques disponibles. Une revision du modele structural du gisement de Sudbury, ajoute a un leve sismique reflexion tridimensionnelle, ont permis de circonscrire un gisement de nickel, avant tout autre travail de developpement minier. Le bassin de l'Athabasca, dans le nord-ouest de la Saskatchewan et le nord-est de l'Alberta, est l'un des producteurs d'uranium les plus prolifiques au monde provenant de gisements a haute teneur de type discordant, et est le seul producteur d'uranium au Canada. Une volumineuse base de donnees sur la geologie, les forages et les proprietes physiques est disponible. En collaboration avec des entreprises privees, Lithoprobe a demontre la valeur de la sismique a haute resolution pour l'imagerie de la discordance et des failles associees aux gisements. Le dernier exemple est celui d'une experience de sismique reflexion unique visant a representer le dyke de kimberlite diamantifere du lac Snap dans la province des Esclaves, dans les Territoires du Nord-Ouest. L'occasion d'etudier des echantillons geologiques du dyke de kimberlite, et des roches environnantes, et de valider les resultats sismiques a l'aide des donnees de forage mises a disposition par les deux partenaires prives, a permis une etude de cas tres fructueuse.

Seismic inversion is applied to generate physical property models (P-wave velocity and numerical attenuation) for four profiles in the Nechako–Chilcotin plateau region of south-central British Columbia, Canada. A newly developed method that combines three-dimensional (3-D) travel-time inversion and 2.5-dimensional (2.5-D) viscoacoustic full-waveform inversion was applied to generate the geophysical models from vibroseis data acquired along the preexisting crooked roads. These models are useful for the characterization of rock types in terms of their positions and thicknesses, which may be used in conjunction with geological ground truth to infer the extent of lithostratigraphic units in the subsurface. The velocity structures also may be used for future reprocessing of the seismic reflection data to derive improved images based on the better near-surface velocity models. The subsurface geology of the Nechako–Chilcotin plateau region is complex, resulting from multiple stages of tectonic compression and extension, contemporaneous with the deposition of sediments and volcanic material. Several basin structures are identified from the joint interpretation of the waveform tomography velocity models and post-stack time migration images. The combination of these results enables the extrapolation and characterization of geological structures to ∼3 km depth, particularly within the Cenozoic volcanic units that dominate near-surface stratigraphy. Based on the seismic profiles, a fence-diagram geological interpretation that extends to ∼3 km depth illustrates the complex structure of the Jurassic to Neogene stratigraphic sequence.

[1] A method for 2.5D viscoacoustic waveform tomography that can be applied to generate 2D models of velocity and attenuation from inversion of refraction waveforms on land seismic reflection data acquired along crooked roads is developed. It is particularly useful for typical crustal reflection surveys. First-arrival travel time tomography is applied using a 3D method, but with constraints on the intermediate 3D velocity model; the result is the starting model for the next step. A 2.5D frequency-domain full-waveform inversion stage parameterizes 3D geometry in the seismic source and receiver arrays, with the assumption that the velocity and attenuation models are homogeneous in the out-of-plane direction. This approach results in superior results compared to a strictly 2D approach when the acquisition line is crooked, with a moderate increase in computational cost. A case study using data acquired in the Nechako Basin in south-central British Columbia, Canada, exemplifies and validates the procedure. The velocity model derived from 2.5D waveform tomography is compared with that from a previous study in which 2D waveform tomography was applied to the same data set and with results from 3D travel time tomography. The resolution and accuracy of the velocity model from 2.5D waveform tomography are demonstrated to be greater than those from travel time or 2D waveform tomography. A model of viscoacoustic attenuation, which was not possible in the 2D case, is also generated. These models are interpreted jointly to highlight features of geological interest, such as a sedimentary basin, basement rocks, and faults, from surface to about 3 km depth.

Waveform tomography, a combination of traveltime tomography (or inversion) and waveform inversion, is applied to vibroseis first-arrival data to generate an interpretable model of P-wave velocity for a site in the Nechako Basin, south-central British Columbia, Canada. We use constrained 3D traveltime inversion followed by 2D full-waveform inversion to process long-offset (14.4 km) first-arrival refraction waveforms, resulting in a velocity model of significantly higher detail than a conventional refraction-statics model generated for a processing workflow. The crooked-line acquisition of the data set makes 2D full-waveform inversion difficult. Thus, a procedure that improves the tractability of waveform tomography processing of vibroseis data recorded on crooked roads is developed to generate a near-surface ([Formula: see text]) velocity model for the study area. The data waveforms are first static corrected using a time shift determined by 3D raytracing, which accounts for the crossline offsets produced by the crooked-line acquisition. The velocity model generated from waveform tomography exhibits substantial improvement when compared with a conventional refraction-statics model. It also shows improved resolution of sharp discontinuities and low-velocity regions when compared to the model from traveltime tomography alone, especially in regions where the geometry errors are moderate. Interpretation of the near-surface velocity model indicates possible subbasins in the Nechako Basin and delineates the Eocene volcanic rocks of the study area. This approach limits the ability of the full-waveform inversion to fit some propagation modes; however, the tractability of the inversion in the near-surface region is improved. This new development is especially useful in studies that do not warrant 3D seismic acquisition and processing.

Suppression of incoherent noise, which is present in the seismic signal and may often lead to ambiguous interpretation, is a key step in processing associated with crustal reflection data. In this paper, we make use of the parsimonious representation of seismic data in the curvelet domain to perform the noise attenuation while preserving the coherent energy and its amplitude information. Curvelets are a recently developed mathematical transform that has as one of its properties minimal overlap between seismic signal and noise in the transform domain, thereby facilitating signal-noise separation. The problem is cast as an inverse problem and the results are obtained by updating the solution at each iteration. We demonstrate the effectiveness of this procedure at removing noise on both synthetic shot gathers and a synthetic stacked seismic section. We then apply curvelet denoising to deep crustal seismic reflection data where the signal-to-noise ratio is low. The reflection data were recorded along Lithoprobe's SNORCLE Line 1 across Paleoproterozoic-Archean domains in Canada's Northwest Territories. After initial processing, we apply the iterative curvelet denoising to both pre-stack shot gathers and post-stack data. Ground roll, random noise and much of the anomalous vertical energy is removed from the pre-stack shot gathers, to the extent that crustal reflections, including those from the Moho, are clearly seen on individual gathers. Denoised stacked data show a series of dipping reflections in the lower crust that extend into the Moho. The Moho itself is relatively flat and characterized by a sharp, narrow band of reflections. Comparing the results for the stacked data with those from F-X deconvolution, curvelet denoising outperforms the latter by attenuating incoherent noise with minimal harm to the signal. Because curvelet denoising retains amplitude information, it provides opportunities for further studies of seismic sections through attribute analyses. Curvelet denoising provides an important new tool in the processing toolbox for crustal seismic reflection data.

In the BATHOLITHSonland seismic project, a refraction – wide-angle reflection survey was shot in 2009 across the Coast Mountains and Interior Plateau of central British Columbia. Part of the seismic profile crossed the Nechako Basin, a Jurassic–Cretaceous basin with potential for hydrocarbons within sedimentary strata that underlies widespread volcanic rocks. Along this 205 km-long line segment, eight large explosive shots were fired into 980 seismometers. Forward and inverse modelling of the traveltime data were conducted with two independent methods: ray-tracing based modelling of first and secondary arrivals, and a higher resolution wavefront-based first-arrival seismic tomography. Material with velocities less than 5.0 km/s is interpreted as sedimentary rocks of the Nechako Basin, while velocities from 5.0–6.0 km/s may correspond to interlayered sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The greatest thickness of sedimentary rocks in the basin is found in the central 110 km of the profile. Two sub-basins were identified in this region, with widths of 20–50 km and maximum sedimentary depths of 2.5 and 3.3 km. Such features are well-defined in the velocity model, since resolution tests indicate that features with widths greater than ∼13 km are reliable. Beneath the sedimentary rocks, seismic velocities increase more slowly with depth — from 6.0 km/s just below the basin to 6.3 km/s at ∼17 km in depth, and then to 6.8–7.0 km/s at the base of the crust. The Moho is found at a depth of 33.5–35 km beneath the profile, and mantle velocities are high at 8.05–8.10 km/s.

Three lithospheric cross sections provide a continental-scale synthesis of more than two decades of coordinated multidisciplinary research during the Canadian Lithoprobe project. The sections are based on seismic reflection and refraction data combined with a broad range of geological, geochemical, geochronological, and geophysical data. The dataset is derived from remnants of nearly every kind of tectonic regime, and the geologic history of the entrained rocks spans the Present to the Mesoarchean. The longest of the three cross sections is located within a 6000 km long Trans-Canada corridor traversing the North American continent at 45°N–55°N. From west to east, the profile crosses the Juan de Fuca ridge and active Cascadia subduction zone, the Cordilleran, Albertan, and Trans-Hudson orogens, the Superior Province, the Midcontinent rift, the Grenville and Appalachian orogens, and the Atlantic passive margin. The two northern cross sections include (i) a 2000 km long corridor in northwestern Canada (54°N–63°N) crossing the Cordilleran, Wopmay, and Slave orogens; and (ii) a 1600 km long corridor in northeastern Canada (52°N–61°N) crossing the New Quebec and Torngat orogens, the Nain craton, and the Makkovik and Grenville orogens. The unprecedented scale of the cross sections illuminates the assembly of the North American continent. Relationships between orogens are emphasized; plate collisions and accretions have sequentially stacked orogen upon orogen such that the older crust forms basement to the next younger. The large-scale perspective of these regional sections highlights the subhorizontal Moho that is indicative of either structural or thermal re-equilibration (or both), as few crustal roots beneath orogens are preserved. In contrast, heterogeneities in the lithospheric mantle suggest that, in certain situations, relict subducted or delaminated lithosphere can remain intact beneath and eventually within cratonic lithospheric mantle.

Application of regional geophysical and geological methods throughout two decades of Canada’s Lithoprobe project provides new opportunities to analyze the Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) and crust–mantle transition. The transect format employed during Lithoprobe, in which 10 specified regions of Canada were targeted for approximately a decade each, between 1984 and 2003, permitted teams of scientists to focus on geological, geophysical, and tectonic issues for each transect. As a primary objective was to enhance knowledge of the structure of the crust and lithosphere, an obvious target in each transect was the nature and origin of the Moho and crust–mantle transition. Accordingly, the combined results provide new perspectives on the Moho and the relationship of the Moho to the crust–mantle transition. Perhaps the most important result is that the continental geophysical Moho is a deceptively simple feature; it has a variety of signatures at different scales that preclude a single, universally applicable interpretation. In methods that provide large-scale information, such as regional seismic studies, it is a relatively abrupt refraction velocity contrast that often displays a dramatic downward decrease in seismic reflectivity. However, its origin in a geological or tectonic sense is perhaps best determined by careful analyses of structural details near the geophysical Moho, which are complex and varied. In some areas within Canada, it appears that the geophysical Moho may be old and perhaps remains from the time the crust formed; in other areas, it appears to be a relatively young feature that was superimposed onto older crustal fabrics.

Lithoprobe is Canada’s national, collaborative, multidisciplinary, Earth science research project established to develop a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of northern North America. It is regarded internationally as one of the most successful national geoscience projects ever undertaken. Part of Lithoprobe’s success derives from its history and organizational structure. A one-year Phase I program (1984–1985) was highly successful. Phases II to V carried the project forward until 2005, when funding terminated. Lithoprobe was organized as a decentralized research network of multidisciplinary scientific studies and collaborating scientists. About 1500 scientific publications were generated. Lithoprobe’s legacy also includes economic and social benefits. New and improved understanding of Earth history provides petroleum and mining companies with an enhanced knowledge base. Lithoprobe demonstrated the applicability of high-resolution seismic reflection studies to mineral exploration. Development of a portable seismic refraction recorder and a long-period magnetotelluric system led to technology transfer to Canadian companies. Very high-resolution seismic reflection studies, applied first by Lithoprobe, are proving effective for exploration for uranium deposits in Saskatchewan. In the cratonic areas of Canada, Lithoprobe seismic and magnetotelluric studies have provided significant new information relevant to exploration for diamonds. On the west coast of Canada, Lithoprobe studies provided data and a framework for better understanding the mega-thrust earthquake hazard in the region. Lithoprobe established a highly effective public outreach strategy that involved the print and electronic media as well as material for educational purposes. Unequivocally, Lithoprobe has enhanced the already strong reputation of the Earth sciences in Canada.

Within Lithoprobe’s 10 transects, data from more than 20 000 km of multichannel seismic (MCS) reflection profiling and 12 refraction – wide-angle reflection (R/WAR) surveys were acquired. While the main results related to crustal structure, the data also indicated substantial heterogeneity in the lithospheric mantle. Images of fossilized subduction zones from the Eocene to the Neoarchean demonstrate that current plate tectonic processes have been active for more than 2.6 Ga. The Canadian Cordillera has a thin (50–60 km) lithosphere that is likely receiving some dynamic support from the asthenosphere below. Vestiges of the last stage of accretionary tectonic processes that formed the Archean Superior craton are indicated by an unusual anisotropic high velocity layer that may represent relic oceanic lithosphere. Within the Paleoproterozoic Trans-Hudson Orogen, a restricted region of upper mantle P-wave velocity anisotropy is identified with the continental collision between the bounding Hearne and Superior cratons. In the Archean Hearne and Wyoming provinces, two dipping structures within the sub-crustal lithosphere are interpreted as subduction features related to the assembly of the two cratons. Finite-difference modeling of long-offset data (over 1300 km) reveals fine-scale heterogeneities within a layer between 90 and 150 km in the continental lithosphere, perhaps formed through lateral flow or deformation within the upper mantle. Based on Lithoprobe data, heterogeneities within the lithospheric mantle are reasonably common. They have a wide range of seismic signatures, include many different types and show differing scales. Nevertheless, their extent in the lithospheric mantle is considerably less than in the crust.

Near-vertical incidence and refraction – wide-angle reflection seismic data, recorded as part of Lithoprobe studies in the Paleoproterozoic–Archean domains of Canada’s Northwest Territories, show remarkable reflections from within the upper mantle. A parallel pair of reflectors imaged by the near-vertical data can be traced from Moho levels (∼33 km) down to ∼70 km depth. In a previous study, the reflectors were interpreted as the top and bottom of an ∼1.8 Ga subducted oceanic crust beneath the Hottah terrane. Further inboard, where the seismic line changes its direction from east–west to nearly north–south, another pair of reflectors extends subhorizontally for about 100 km at ∼70 km depth before dipping downward. The subhorizontal reflectors were not correlated with the dipping slab; instead they were interpreted as a separate feature. However, they roughly coincide with a horizontal interface modeled from wide-angle data by an earlier study. Considering the crooked line acquisition geometry, we re-examined both near-vertical incidence and wide-angle reflection data using 2-dimensional (2-D) and 3-D forward and inverse modeling algorithms. Our results demonstrate that the subhorizontal reflectors are the continuation of the relict subducted slab, which now extends laterally for 300 km. Its base is the source of the wide-angle data. The apparent flattening for the near-vertical data is most likely an artifact of projecting a 3-D geometry onto a 2-D cross section. The shallowly subducted slab probably contributed to the thickening and stabilization of the subcrustal lithosphere below the Wopmay orogen.

SUMMARY Using a 3-D seismic reflection data set recorded by the Canadian petroleum exploration industry to 5.1 s two-way traveltime (∼15 km depth) in northwestern Alberta, the Winagami reflection sequence (WRS), an interpreted sill complex previously identified on Lithoprobe 2-D multichannel seismic reflection lines, is investigated to determine its 3-D geometry and reflective characteristics. Clear evidence of the top of the WRS emerges from the data set. Data sections outline a 3-D reflective sheet dipping to the southeast. From polarity comparisons with reflections from the sedimentary sequence, the reflective signature of the deep body is inferred to result from higher impedance material than the surrounding host rocks, thus reinforcing earlier interpretations that the deep reflections result from doleritic sills intruded into gneissic crystalline basement. Simple 1-D forward modelling reveals that the thickness of the sheet is on the order of 100 m throughout the survey region. From 3-D Kirchhoff forward modelling, a model of the reflective sheet is constrained between 11 and 16 km depth along the northwestern edge of the survey area. The absence of the Winagami reflections, and basement reflectivity in general, in the southeast of the survey region coincides with a positive aeromagnetic anomaly inferred to be caused by magmatic rocks. The presence of the magmatic rocks may have either influenced the geometry of the intrusion of the sills, overprinted their reflective signature or been co-magmatic, dependent upon the relative timing of emplacement of the two features. The Winagami sill complex appears to have been intruded horizontally into the crust during a period of tectonic compression. The emplacement of such deep Precambrian sills represents an under-appreciated mode of magmatic addition into the crystalline crust.

Observations of upper mantle reflectivity at numerous locations around the world have been linked to the presence of a heterogeneous distribution of rock types within a broad layer of the upper mantle. This phenomenon is observed in wide-angle reflection data from Lithoprobe's Alberta Basement Transect [the SAREX and Deep Probe experiments of 1995] and Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect [the THoRE experiment of 1993]. SAREX and Deep Probe image the Archaean lithosphere of the Hearne and Wyoming Provinces, whereas THoRE images the Archaean and Proterozoic lithosphere of the Trans-Hudson Orogen and neighbouring areas. Finite-difference synthetic seismograms are used to constrain the position and physical properties of the reflective layer. SAREX/Deep Probe modelling uses a 2-D visco-elastic finite-difference routine; THoRE modelling uses a pseudospectral algorithm. In both cases, the upper mantle is parameterized in terms of two media. One medium is the background matrix; the other is statistically distributed within the first as a series of elliptical bodies. Such a scheme is suitable for modelling: (1) variations in lithology (e.g., a peridotite matrix with eclogite lenses) or (2) variations in rheology (e.g., lenses of increased strain within a less strained background). The synthetic seismograms show that the properties of heterogeneities in the upper mantle do not change significantly between the two Lithoprobe transects. Beneath the Trans-Hudson Orogen in Saskatchewan, the layer is best modelled to lie at depths between 80 and 150 km. Based on observations from perpendicular profiles, anisotropy of the heterogeneities is inferred. Beneath the Precambrian domains of Alberta, 400 km to the west, upper mantle heterogeneities are modelled to occur between depths of 90 and 140 km. In both cases the heterogeneous bodies within the model have cross-sectional lengths of tens of kilometers, vertical thicknesses less than 1 km, and velocity contrasts from the background of − 0.3 to − 0.4 km/s. Based on consistency with complementary data and other results, the heterogeneous layer is inferred to be part of the continental lithosphere and may have formed through lateral flow or deformation within the upper mantle.

Anomalous crustal and upper mantle structure of northern Juan de Fuca plate is revealed from wide-angle seismic and gravity modelling. A 2-D velocity model is produced for refraction line II of the 1980 Vancouver Island Seismic Project (VISP80). The refraction data were recorded on three ocean bottom seismometers (OBSs) deployed at the ends and middle of a 110 km line oriented parallel to the North American continental margin. The velocity model is constructed via ray tracing and conforms to first-arrival amplitude observations and travel time picks of direct, converted and reflected phases. Between sub-sediment depths of ∼3 to ∼11 km, depths normally associated with the lower crust and upper oceanic mantle, the final model shows that compressional-wave velocities decrease significantly from southeast to northwest along the profile. At sub-sediment depths of ∼11 km at the northwestern end of the profile, P-wave velocities are as low as 7.2 km/s. A complementary 2-D gravity model using the geometry of the velocity model and velocity–density relationships characteristic of oceanic crust is produced. The high densities required to match the gravity field indicate the presence of peridotites containing 25–30% serpentine by volume, rather than excess gabbroic crust, within the deep low velocity zone. Anomalous travel time delays and unusual reflection characteristics observed from proximal seismic refraction and reflection experiments suggest a broader zone of partially serpentinized peridotites coincident with the trace of a pseudofault. We propose that partial serpentinization of the upper mantle is a consequence of slow spreading at the tip of a propagating rift.

Shear-wave seismic data recorded along four profiles during the SNoRE 97 (1997 Slave – Northern Cordillera Refraction Experiment) refraction – wide-angle reflection experiment in northwestern Canada are analyzed to provide S-wave velocity (Vs) models. These are combined with previous P-wave velocity (Vp) models to produce cross sections of the ratio Vp/Vs for the crust and upper mantle. The Vp/Vs values are related to rock types through comparisons with published laboratory data. The Slave craton has low Vp/Vs values of 1.68–1.72, indicating a predominantly silicic crustal composition. Higher values (1.78) for the Great Bear and eastern Hottah domains of the Wopmay orogen imply a more mafic than average crustal composition. In the western Hottah and Fort Simpson arc, values of Vp/Vs drop to ∼1.69. These low values continue westward for 700 km into the Foreland and Omineca belts of the Cordillera, providing support for the interpretation from coincident seismic reflection studies that much of the crust from east of the Cordilleran deformation front to the Stikinia terrane of the Intermontane Belt consists of quartzose metasedimentary rocks. Stikinia shows values of 1.78–1.73, consistent with its derivation as a volcanic arc terrane. Upper mantle velocity and ratio values beneath the Slave craton indicate an ultramafic peridotitic composition. In the Wopmay orogen, the presence of low Vp/Vs ratios beneath the Hottah – Fort Simpson transition indicates the presence of pyroxenite in the upper mantle. Across the northern Cordillera, low Vp values and a moderate-to-high ratio in the uppermost mantle are consistent with the region's high heat flow and the possible presence of partial melt.

The SNORCLE refraction – wide-angle reflection (R/WAR) experiment, SNORE'97, included four individual lines along the three transect corridors. A combination of SNORE'97 results with those from earlier studies permits generation of a 2000 km long lithospheric velocity model that extends from the Archean Slave craton to the present Pacific basin. Using this model and coincident near-vertical incidence (NVI) reflection data and geological information, an interpreted cross section that exemplifies 4 Ga of lithospheric development is generated. The velocity structural models correlate well with the reflection sections and provide additional structural, compositional, and thermal constraints. Geological structures and some faults are defined in the upper crust. At a larger scale, the seismic data identify a variety of orogenic styles ranging from thin- to thick-skinned accretion in the Cordillera and crustal-scale tectonic wedging associated with both Paleoproterozoic and Mesozoic collisions. Models of Poisson's ratio support the NVI interpretation that a thick wedge of cratonic metasediments underlies the eastern accreted Cordilleran terranes. Despite the variety of ages, orogenic styles, and tectono-magmatic deformations that are spanned by the seismic corridors, the Moho remains remarkably flat and shallow (33–36 km) across the majority of the transect. Significant variations only occur at major tectonic boundaries. Laterally variable crustal velocities are consistently slower beneath the Cordillera than beneath the cratonic crust. This is consistent with the high temperatures (800–900 °C) required by the slow upper mantle velocities (7.8–7.9 km/s) observed beneath much of the Cordillera. Heterogeneity of the lithospheric mantle is indicated by wide-angle reflections below the Precambrian domains and the western Cordillera.

A three-dimensional model of the regional crustal architecture of the western Trans-Hudson Orogen, based on the interpretation of 590 km of deep-sounding seismic reflection data and a comparable length of existing seismic reflection information, is presented. The seismic images identify the regional geometry of the basal detachment zone (Pelican thrust) that separates juvenile allochthonous terranes from the underlying Archean microcontinent (Sask craton). The Sask Craton is inferred to have a minimum spatial extent of over 100 000 km2 with an associated crustal root that extends for 200 km along strike. During terminal collision, complete convergence of the Rae–Hearne and Superior continental blocks was precluded by the presence of the Sask Craton, resulting in the preservation of anomalous amounts of oceanic and associated sedimentary juvenile material. Along regional tectonic strike, consistency of crustal structure across the Rae–Hearne margin – Reindeer zone boundary is established. Several phases of tectonic development, including multistage subduction and continent–continent collision, are inferred for the western margin of the orogen. A bright, shallow (2–3.5 s two-way traveltime) band of reflectivity (Wollaston Lake reflector) imaged over ~150 000 km2 area is inferred to be a large post-orogenic mafic intrusion. A highly reflective, well-defined and structurally disturbed Moho discontinuity is mapped throughout the western Trans-Hudson Orogen. The present-day crustal architecture of the western Trans-Hudson Orogen is described in terms of the tectonic evolution within the region.

The Trans-Hudson Orogen (THO) is the world's largest Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt. Data from three refraction profiles are used to investigate its lithospheric structure in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. R1 crosses the orogen from the Hearne craton on the west to the Superior craton on the east; R2 and R3 are along the orogen. P-wave velocity structural models are generated using a ray-based technique. On line R1, higher crustal velocities in its eastern part coincide with rocks of the Flin Flon – Namew gneiss complex. Depth to Moho is in the 40–45 km range and equates to that from the reflection data, including a small crustal root below the Sask minicontinent. Along lines R2 and R3, depth to Moho varies from about 40 km up to 55 km at the north end of R2 and south end of R3. In general, variations in crustal velocity and depth to Moho do not correlate with the location and extent of geological domains; they appear to reflect the complex deformation and metamorphic history of the crustal rocks. Mantle velocities are high, ~8.2 km/s. However a limited area shows prominent velocity anisotropy, with values of 8.6 km/s along R2 and R3 and 8.1 km/s along R1. We speculate that the observed anisotropy represents an ~100-km-wide mantle suture zone resulting from the collision of Archean plates. The suture zone accommodated limited extensional deformation, associated with a counterclockwise rotation of the Superior plate, to generate the anisotropy. In this model, the lithospheric mantle of the THO internal domains and Sask craton are detached.

Seismic reflection techniques are, for the first time, used to image a thin, diamondiferous kimberlite dyke from subcrop to depths greater than 1300 m. Geophysical exploration for kimberlite deposits typically involves airborne potential field surveys that are well suited for detecting vertical outcropping pipes but often fail to reveal thin, subhorizontal dykes and sills. Because seismic techniques are especially well suited for mapping structures that have shallow dips and strong impedance contrasts, a feasibility study and seismic reflection survey were undertaken on the diamondiferous Snap Lake dyke (Northwest Territories, Canada) to evaluate the potential for using seismic techniques on these targets. The dyke (average thickness 2–3 m) provides an excellent test site because a drilling program has defined the gross dyke geometry and provides core samples from the kimberlite and host rocks. The feasibility study involved measuring P‐velocity and density of selected cores. Using these data, reflectivity and finite‐difference synthetic seismogram techniques were used to explore the resolution limitations and determine the acquisition parameters for a reflection survey. The seismic survey included two 2D lines designed to obtain comparative data sets from different sources (explosives and vibroseis) and ground types (land or lake‐ice). The explosive‐source land data yielded a superb image of the thin dyke. The vibroseis data, however, detected the dyke only when sources and geophones were on land; the dyke was not imaged beneath the ice due to reverberation and attenuation effects. Correlations are observed between reflection attributes and dyke properties (thickness, structure, and physical properties). The results demonstrate that, in the appropriate situation, seismic methods have great potential for use in kimberlite exploration, subsurface mapping, and detailed imaging for mine development purposes.

Seismic reflection techniques are, for the first time, used to image a thin, diamondiferous, kimberlite dyke from subcrop to depths greater than 1300 m. Exploration for vertical kimberlite pipes generally utilizes potential field techniques that often fail to reveal subhorizontal or shallow-dipping intrusions. In contrast, seismic reflection methods are well suited for imaging targets with this geometry. Therefore, in order to evaluate seismic reflection as a tool for subhorizontal kimberlite dyke/sill exploration and mine planning, a feasibility study and subsequent seismic survey were undertaken on the diamondiferous Snap Lake dyke (Northwest Territories, Canada). A substantial drilling program has mapped the dyke as a gently dipping sheet that averages 2–3 m in thickness. The detailed structural and composition data available at Snap Lake provides a unique opportunity to test reflection techniques on a well-sampled deposit. The feasibility study involved measuring P-velocities and densities of cores drilled from the kimberlite and host rocks. These data were used to model reflection amplitudes, evaluate resolution limitations, and determine the acquisition parameters for the reflection survey. Two 2-D lines were acquired that provide comparative datasets for different sources (explosive and vibroseis) and ground types (land and lake ice). In addition, the exploration-scale survey incorporated high fold (40–260 nominal) and long offsets (3260 m). The explosive-source profile recorded on land yielded a superb image of the dyke from depths of 60 m to more than 1300 m over a lateral distance of 5700 m. The seismic image correlates well with adjacent drill hole data and adds considerable detail to the topography of the kimberlite sheet determined by drilling. The vibroseis source also imaged the dyke, but only when sources and geophones were on land; the dyke was not imaged beneath the ice due to reverberation and attenuation effects. The frequency response and unusually strong reflection amplitudes from the dyke indicate the importance of tuning effects and multiples for this type of target and acquisition environment. Apparent correlations between reflection amplitudes and dyke structure (e.g., thickness, feathering, 3-D geometry) suggest that seismic reflection data may be valuable for guiding drilling programs. The results demonstrate that, in the appropriate situation, seismic methods have great potential for use in kimberlite exploration, subsurface mapping, and detailed imaging for mine development purposes.

The Slave geological province, a relatively small craton in NW Canada that includes the oldest rocks in the world, is one of five cratons that form the Archaean continental core of North America. The Palaeoproterozoic Wopmay orogen, lying between the craton and the Phanerozoic northern Canadian Cordillera, represents crustal growth through addition of a series of north-south oriented magmatic arcs and accreted terranes. As part of LITHOPROBE's multidisciplinary studies, Line 11 of the SNoRE 97 seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection survey investigated the structure of the lithosphere in this region. Interpretation of crustal and mantle arrivals from 13 record sections followed an iterative procedure of traveltime inversion and forward modelling. Results show that crustal thickness at 32-35 km remains relatively constant from the Archaean regions in the east to Proterozoic domains in the west, contrary to average values of crustal thicknesses from global compilations that suggest thicker Proterozoic crust. At the westernmost end of the line, where crustal extension and basin formation are inferred, the crust thins to 30 km. Upper crustal velocities to about 12 km depth lie in the range of 5.8-6.2 km s - 1 . The middle crust of thickness 8-10 km has velocities between 6.2 and 6.6 km s - 1 . Average velocities for the lower crust, differentiated as a 10 km thick layer, range between 6.6 and 6.9 km s - 1 with a higher velocity region (7.1 km s - 1 ) in the transition zone between the Fort Simpson magmatic arc and Hottah accreted terrane in the Wopmay orogen, where a Palaeoproterozoic subduction zone has been inferred from coincident multichannel reflection data. In the same area, anomalously low upper-mantle velocities (7.5 km s - 1 ) have been found, indicating that the effects of collision, subduction and accompanying physical changes in the rocks comprising the mantle lithospheric wedge above the underthrusting structure, may have been retained for 1800 Ma. Data from most record sections with offset distances greater than 250 km show continuous wide-angle reflections from upper-mantle depths of about 75 km and almost 100 km. Although poorly constrained, velocities in this depth range vary from 8.4 to 8.8 km s - 1 . Interpretation of these phases and mantle reflections from equivalent depths in coincident, near-vertical incidence multichannel data relates them to subduction and underthrusting of oceanic crust and subsequent phase changes that occurred during the assembly of the craton and the evolution of the Palaeoproterozoic orogen.

The lithospheric structure of the transition from the craton to the Cordillera in northeastern British Columbia is interpreted from inversion of seismic refraction – wide-angle reflection data along a 460-km profile, and from 3-d (3-dimensional) inversion and 2.5-d forward modelling of Bouguer gravity data. The seismic profile extends westward from the sediment-covered edge of cratonic North America across the Foreland and Omineca morphogeological belts to the eastern boundary of accreted terranes, beyond the Tintina Fault. Across the ancient cratonic margin, the resultant models reveal a westward-thickening package of low upper crustal velocities (6.2 km/s and less) and low densities to almost 20 km depth below the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, overlying a west-facing ramp of higher velocities and densities in the middle and lower crust. These features are inferred to represent passive-margin sediments deposited on the ancient rifted margin during the mid-to-late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic. A wedge-shaped high-velocity (7.3 km/s) crustal layer at the base of the crust beneath the edge of cratonic North America is interpreted to be the result of magmatic underplating during rifting. In the Cordilleran Foreland Belt, high velocities (6.4 km/s) in the upper 5 km of the crust indicate rocks upthrust from the middle crust. A narrow trench of low velocities in the near-surface, which is imaged ~20 km to the west of the inferred location of the Tintina Fault, is interpreted to represent the actual location of the fault or a major splay. From east to west, the Moho decreases in depth from ~40 km to ~34 km below the rifted margin of ancestral North America, then defines a small root at ~38 km depth below the high topography and upper crustal velocities of the eastern Foreland Belt, and gradually shallows to ~34 km beneath the Omineca belt. An enigmatic laterally heterogeneous upper mantle has anomalously high velocities (up to 8.3 km/s) beneath the Foreland Belt, flanked by regions of low velocities (7.7–7.8 km/s). Results indicate that the location of the Cordilleran deformation front west of the ramped cratonic margin directly affected the tectonic evolution of the region.

The Guichon Creek batholith (GCB), located in south‐central British Columbia, contains several large, low‐grade copper deposits of considerable economic importance. The surface geology of the Guichon batholith and its surrounding region have been well mapped; however, little information about subsurface features is available. The batholith consists of four major phases, emplaced radially outward, which can be separated on the basis of their texture and composition. Previous interpretation of gravity data suggests a mushroom‐shaped structure for the batholith. Data from Lithoprobe seismic reflection line 88-11, acquired across the batholith in 1988, reveal weakly coherent east‐dipping reflections on the west side and west‐dipping reflections on the east in the upper 10 km. To determine if these are related to structures associated with the batholith, we reprocessed the upper 6 s with particular emphasis on applications of signal enhancement techniques (e.g., pattern recognition methods, refraction statics, dip moveout corrections) and correlation of the improved subsurface images with the geological environment associated with porphyry copper deposits. Low near‐surface velocities correlate well with the phases of the batholith hosting the major copper deposits, which structurally lie in faulted and brecciated regions. Although the top 1.5 km cannot be imaged by the regional‐scale seismic reflection data, the reprocessed seismic section helps define the edges of the batholith, its various concentric phases, and the stem in the depth range of 1.5 to 10 km. The seismic results are complemented by 2.5-D (profile sense) modeling and 3-D inversion of regional‐scale gravity and high‐resolution aeromagnetic data. These show a low‐density and low‐magnetic‐susceptibility region associated with the batholith that extends to more than 10 km depth. The region of active mining interest lies above a circular low‐susceptibility area at 2 km depth and a low‐velocity region. Integrated interpretation of geophysical results and geological observations indicates the GCB is a funnel‐shaped feature in which mineralization is located above the stem of the batholith.

Crustal structure beneath the transition from the Coast belt to the Intermontane superterrane of the northern Canadian Cordillera is interpreted from the inversion of refraction and wide-angle reflection seismic data. The profile traverses an accretionary suture zone (Coast Plutonic Complex) to continental crust deformed by the transpressive collision (Stikine terrane). Using data acquired by the Accrete onshore/offshore experiment and by a partially overlapping Lithoprobe onshore experiment, P wave travel time inversion and forward amplitude modeling are employed to determine crustal velocity structure. The model exhibits a well-defined transition throughout the crust that distinguishes the Coast Plutonic Complex (CPC) from Stikinia. Average crustal velocities beneath the CPC (6.45 km/s) are considerably faster than those beneath Stikinia (6.25 km/s). Crustal thickness also changes across the transition; thin crust beneath the Coast belt (30–32 km) thickens beneath Stikinia (35–37 km). The observations within the Coast belt are consistent with a tectonic history most recently dominated by extensional deformation. Primary structural control could be associated with either Neogene extension and/or the processes that are responsible for exhuming the Coast belt during the early Paleogene and have been inferred from geological studies. Slow mantle velocities (7.8–7.9 km/s) beneath the entire profile are indicative of high upper mantle temperatures. Comparison with the southern Cordilleran Coast belt reveals similar velocity structure within the massive plutonic complexes. However, substantial differences between the northern and southern Coast belts emphasize along-strike variations in terranes, orogen geometry and postorogenic tectonics.

Three seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection profiles were recorded over the Trans-Hudson Orogen. The profiles display high quality coherent seismic signals associated with the Moho and lithospheric mantle to depths in excess of 160 km. As outlined by wide-angle reflections, depth to Moho varies between 40–54 km with a number of well-defined structural reliefs. Immediately beneath the Moho, in the central part of the orogen, an anomalous high-velocity zone (∼8.45 km/s) with lateral dimensions of 100 km (north-south) by 130 km (east-west) and maximum thickness of 50 km was delineated by mantle refraction arrivals. This zone may represent a locally preserved remnant of older mantle from micro-continental collisions. Mantle discontinuities with some structural relief are interpreted at average depths of 75 and 158 km. Based on wide-angle reflections at offsets beyond 400 km, they bound a layered zone with variable velocities, probably representing imbricated sequences of peridotite and eclogite. We postulate that these unusual features of the upper mantle are the result of lithospheric convergence of bounding Archean cratons and closure of the intervening ocean basin.

The northern Cascadia subduction zone is a region of convergence between the oceanic Explorer and northern Juan de Fuca plates and the continental North American plate. Potential field and new seismic reflection data coupled with previous seismic results and geology enable derivation of a series of density – magnetic susceptibility cross sections and a block density model from the ocean basin to the volcanic arc from 2.5- and 3-dimensional interpretations. The lateral extent and thickness of the accreted wedge vary significantly along the zone. The narrow, metasedimentary Pacific Rim terrane lies immediately west of Wrangellia and extends the length of Vancouver Island, consistent with its emplacement by strike-slip faulting following the accretion of Wrangellia. The ophiolitic Crescent terrane is a narrow slice lying seaward of the Pacific Rim terrane but not extending northward beyond the Juan de Fuca plate. In this region, the Crescent terrane was emplaced in a strike-slip or obliquely convergent style during the latter stages of emplacement of Pacific Rim terrane. Below the accreted terranes, the Explorer plate is shallower than Juan de Fuca plate, resulting in a thinner crust. High-density lower crustal material lies beneath the western edge of Vancouver Island, supporting interpretations of wide-scale underplating of Wrangellia. The shape of the boundary region between Wrangellia and the Coast belt to the east varies along strike and may be controlled by properties of preexisting plutonic rocks. The low-density Coast belt plutons extend throughout most of the crust and are underlain by a lowermost crustal high-density layer, which may be indicative of fractionation accompanying magma generation.

LITHOPROBE, Canada's national collaborative earth science research project established to develop a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of the North American continent, is a multidisciplinary program spearheaded by seismic reflection studies. Five recently recorded seismic lines, discussed in this paper, are located in Precambrian regions: the Mesoproterozoic Grenville Province, the Paleoproterozoic Trans-Hudson orogen (THO), the Paleoproterozoic/Archean basement of Alberta, and the Archean Superior Province. Data acquired across the Grenville orogen in eastern Quebec show strong reflectivity throughout the crust; upper crustal reflections can be correlated with exposed structural elements, including extensional shear zones and packages of deformed high-pressure rocks (eclogites). In a marine survey across the Grenville orogen off southeastern Labrador, seismic images show variably dipping reflections and a structural high associated with a major gravity anomaly. Data acquired across central Alberta show crustal-scale thrust stacking and imbrication of the Archean Hearne craton. To the east across the Trans-Hudson orogen, images of similar collisional features are observed. Geochronologic constraints indicate contemporaneity of tectonic activity between the two regions at 1.8 Ga, suggesting that collisional tectonic activity was coeval over a broad crustal region, ca. 1000 km across strike. In the Superior Province, seismic data across a collision zone involving the northern Abitibi greenstone belt and the arc-related Opatica plutonic belt show spectacular crustal reflectivity and dipping reflections that extend 8 s (∼30 km) into the mantle. The latter feature is interpreted as representing a relict 2.69-Ga-old suture associated with subduction, providing the first direct evidence that plate tectonics was active in the late Archean. These five examples, supported by other LITHOPROBE results, refute a number of generalizations about crustal reflectivity that have been made in the past and illustrate how reflection studies, combined with other geoscience studies, can lead to a better understanding of Precambrian tectonics. Reflectivity persists throughout the crust; there is no general separation into a poorly reflective upper crust and a reflective lower crust. Crustal reflectivity in Archean and Proterozoic regions is as pervasive as that in areas of more recent tectonism. The Precambrian reflection Moho is generally well defined but shows a range of characteristics. Relative ages of reflectors can be discerned and tectonic significance can be attached to characteristic features of the crustal reflectivity.

Seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection data were recorded on a triangular array in southwestern British Columbia centered on the boundary between the Coast Belt to the southwest and the Intermontane Belt to the northeast. The experiment, part of the Lithoprobe Southern Cordillera transect, enabled determination of the three-dimensional (3-D) velocity structure of the crust and upper mantle. An algorithm for the inversion of wide-angle seismic data to determine 3-D velocity structure and depth to reflecting interfaces is developed. The algorithm is based on existing procedures for the inversion and forward modeling of first arrival travel times and forward modeling of reflection travel times, including (1) forward modeling using a 3-D finite difference algorithm; and (2) a simple velocity model parameterization for the inversion which eliminates the need to solve a large system of equations. The existing procedure is extended to allow (1) the inversion of reflection times to solve for depth to a reflecting interface and/or velocity structure; (2) the inversion of first arrival travel times to solve for depth to a refracting interface; and (3) layer stripping. Application of the algorithm to southern Cordillera data uses Pg to constrain upper crustal velocity structure, PmP to constrain lower crustal velocity structure and depth to Moho, and Pn to constrain upper mantle velocities and depth to Moho. The 3-D velocity model for the southwestern Canadian Cordillera is characterized by (1) significant lateral velocity variations at all depths that do not, in general, correlate with surface geological features or gravity data; (2) a relatively high velocity middle and lower crust in the southwestern part of the study area which correlates with a strong relative gravity high and outlines the eastern extent of lower Wrangellia, an accreted terrane forming the Insular Belt to the west; (3) a narrow zone of slower velocity in the lower crust and change in crustal thickness associated with the Fraser Fault system, lending additional support to the view that it is a crustal penetrating fault; (4) an average upper mantle velocity of 7.85 km/s; and (5) a depth to Moho of 33–36 km in the Intermontane Belt and 36–38 km throughout most of the Coast Belt, decreasing in the west to 33 km near the Insular-Coast contact. Horizontal velocity structure slices and an interpreted cross section based on these and other results show the complexity of crustal structure in the region.

The northern Juan de Fuca plate forms the basement of a young (

Combined onshore-offshore seismic refraction/ wide-angle reflection data have been acquired across Newfoundland, eastern Canada, to investigate the structural architecture of the northern Appalachians, particularly of distinct crustal zones recognized from earlier LITHOPROBE vertical incidence studies. A western crustal unit, correlated with the Grenville province of the Laurentian plate margin thins from 44 to 40 km and a portion of the lower crust becomes highly reflective with velocities of 7.2 km/s. In central Newfoundland, beneath the central mobile belt, the crust thins to 35 km or less and is marked by average continental velocities, not exceeding 7.0 km/s in the lower crust. Further east, in a crustal unit underlying the Avalon zone and associated with the Gondwanan plate margin, the crust is 40 km thick, and has velocities of 6.8 km/s in the lower crust. Explanations for the thin crust beneath the central mobile belt include (1) post-orogenic isostatic readjustment associated with a density in the mantle which is lower beneath this part of the orogen than beneath the margin, (2) mechanical thinning at the base of the crust during orogenic collapse perhaps caused by delamination, and (3) transformation by phase change of a gabbroic lower crust to eclogite which seismologically would be difficult to distinguish from mantle. Except for a single profile in western Newfoundland, velocities in the crust are of typical continental affinity with lower-crustal velocities less than 7.0 km/s. This indicates that there was no significant magmatic underplating under the Newfoundland Appalachians during Mesozoic rifting of the Atlantic Ocean as proposed elsewhere for the New England Appalachians. A mid-crustal velocity discontinuity observed in the Newfoundland region does not coincide with any consistent reflection pattern on vertical incidence profiles. However, we suggest that localized velocity heterogeneities at mid-crustal depths correspond to organized vertical incidence reflections.

Travel time inversion and amplitude modeling of a 350-km Lithoprobe seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection profile determined the velocity structure of the crust and upper mantle along strike in the Omineca Belt of the Canadian Cordillera. The upper crust to 12–18 km depth has velocities from 5.6 to 6.2 km s−1, and two shear zones, the Monashee Decollement and Gwillim Creek Shear Zone, are imaged by the wide-angle reflections and velocity trends. Minor velocity differences on either side of the Monashee Decollement may be related to separate rock origins. Prominent reflections define the boundaries of a low-velocity midcrustal layer from 10–15 km to 20–25 km depth with velocities less than 6.1 km s−1. The low velocities of the midcrust, associated with high electrical conductivities and high heat flow, may be considered as support for the hypothesis of fluids in the Cordilleran crust, though other possibilities, such as the effect of high temperatures on rock velocities are possible. In the lower crust velocities range from 6.4–6.5 km s−1 at the top of the lower crust to 6.6–6.8 km s−1 at its base. The Moho is very clearly defined by the refraction/wide-angle reflection data and has a gentle southerly dip. Crustal thicknesses are 35–37 km. A thin crust-mantle transition zone of 1–2 km thickness in which velocities vary between 7.6 and 7.7 km s−1 is consistent with coincident reflection data. Upper mantle velocities range from 7.9 to 8.1 km s−1 with indications from the data of upper mantle layering. In comparison with neighboring regions, the Omineca Belt has an anomalously thin crust, low crustal velocities, and a low-velocity upper mantle, similar only to the Basin and Range province. The velocity structure may partly mirror the temperature profile which has overprinted the geological signature of the region as measured by the seismic refraction method. The characteristics of a thin crust and lithosphere, along with low velocities from midcrust to mantle suggests that both the Basin and Range and the southern Canadian Cordillera are currently being heated from a source within the mantle.

We applied an iterative combination of two-dimensional traveltime inversion and amplitude forward modelling to seismic refraction data along a 350 km along-strike profile in the Coast Belt of the southern Canadian Cordillera to determine crust and upper mantle P-wave velocity structure. The crustal model features a thin (0.5–3.0 km) near-surface layer with an average velocity of 4.4 km/s, and upper-, middle-, and lower-crustal strata which are each approximately 10 km thick and have velocities ranging from 6.2 to 6.7 km/s. The Moho appears as a 2 km thick transitional layer with an average depth of 35 km and overlies an upper mantle with a poorly constrained velocity of over 8 km/s. Other interpretations indicate that this profile lies within a collision zone between the Insular superterrane and the ancient North American margin and propose two collision-zone models: (i) crustal delamination, whereby the Insular superterrane was displaced along east-vergent faults over the terranes below; and (ii) crustal wedging, in which interfingering of Insular rocks occurs throughout the crust. The latter model involves thick layers of Insular material beneath the Coast Belt profile, but crustal velocities indicate predominantly non-Insular material, thereby favoring the crustal delamination model. Comparisons of the velocity model with data from the proximate reflection lines show that the top of the Moho transition zone corresponds with the reflection Moho. Comparisons with other studies suggest that likely sources for intracrustal wide-angle reflections observed in the refraction data are structural features, lithological contrasts, and transition zones surrounding a region of layered porosity in the crust.

The Queen Charlotte Basin consists of up to 6 km of Tertiary clastic sediments in a complex sequence of fault-bounded subbasins. The tectonic evolution of the basin in still being debated, with recent interpretations including distributed strike-slip extension, oblique or en echelon rifting, simple extension orthogonal to the plate margin, and block faulting and vertical tectonics. A combined seismic reflection and refraction survey was carried out in 1988 to investigate the structure and tectonic evolution of the basin and underlying crust. While the marine multichannel reflection data were being collected, refracted and wide-angle reflected energy from the large air-gun array was recorded at surrounding land sites in both two-dimensional (in-line) and three-dimensional (broadside) geometries. The broadside refraction data recorded on the Queen Charlotte Islands provide good three-dimensional coverage of western Hecate Strait. These data are modelled to determine the three-dimensional structure of the Queen Charlotte Basin. The reflection data indicate that the sedimentary Queen Charlotte Basin beneath the shotpoints varies rapidly in thickness and is highly three-dimensional. First-arrival traveltimes from the broadside refraction data are inverted to find the three-dimensional structure of the basement interface beneath the shots and out of the planes of the reflection sections. A map of basement depth is derived for a region several kilometres wide adjacent to the reflection lines. Basin thickness varies rapidly between ~ 200 m and ~ 6 km. The model is consistent with the seismic reflection and potential field data sets. Although most of the basin is modelled as sediments overlying rocks with crustal velocities, a thick sequence of interbedded sedimentary and volcanic rocks is interpreted to underlie the shot lines in one region that lies east of the central Queen Charlotte Islands. Four major faults are also interpreted. These are based on sharp vertical relief of over 2 km on the map of basement depth. The orientation and topography across the faults and the small lateral scale and large topographic changes of the subbasins support the distributed strike-slip extension evolutionary model for the basin.

As part of a multidisciplinary investigation of the structure and tectonics of the Queen Charlotte Basin and underlying crust, deep multichannel seismic reflection and coincident crustal refraction data were collected in 1988. Energy from the reflection air-gun array source was recorded at land sites at offsets appropriate to record crustal refraction and wide-angle reflection data. Refraction data recorded in a broadside geometry provide good three-dimensional coverage of western Hecate Strait. These data are modelled using tomographic inversion techniques to determine the three-dimensional velocity structure of the crust in this region. The one-dimensional average velocity increases rapidly with depth to 6.5 km/s at 7 km depth. Velocities from 7 to at least 12 km depth remain approximately constant and are associated with rocks of the Wrangellia terrane. Significant lateral velocity variations, including large differences in near-surface velocities attributable to surface features, relatively low velocities representing interbedded Tertiary sediments and volcanics, and a deep high-velocity anomaly that may represent the root of an igneous intrusion, are mapped. Wide-angle reflections from the Moho are used to determine the thickness of the crust. The Moho is at 29 km depth beneath the east coast of the Queen Charlotte Islands. This is deeper than the Moho observed below Queen Charlotte Sound and as deep as, or deeper than, that below Hecate Strait. Crustal thinning during Tertiary extension was thus greatest beneath the surface expression of the Queen Charlotte Basin, leaving the crust under the islands considerably thicker than under the basin. In an alternate or additional explanation, compression at the continental margin during the last 4 Ma may have been taken up by thickening or underplating of the continental crust beneath the islands. If the Pacific plate is subducting beneath the islands, the Moho observations constrain the slab to dip greater than 20–26°.

Seismic refraction data recorded along a 330 km cross-strike profile through the eastern Insular and southernmost Coast belts of the Canadian Cordillera are interpreted using an iterative combination of traveltime inversion and amplitude forward modelling. The resultant model is characterized by large lateral variations in velocity. The most significant of these variations is a decrease in upper and middle crustal velocities to the east of the surface trace of the Harrison fault, which likely represents the transition from crust of the Insular superterrane to that of the Intermontane superterrane. This interpretation is consistent with some present geological models that place the possible (probable) location of the suture between the two superterranes less than 20 km east of the Harrison fault. Velocities at the base of the upper crust average 6.4 and 6.2 km/s west and east of the fault, respectively. Mid-crustal velocities average 6.6–6.9 km/s to the west and 6.35–6.45 km/s to the east of the fault. Lower crustal velocities also decrease slightly to the east. Other features of the velocity model include (i) a thin near-surface layer with velocities between 2.5 and 6.1 km/s; (ii) upper crustal thickness of 12.5 km, thinning to 8 km at the eastern boundary of the Western Coast Belt (WCB); (iii) high velocity (6.6–6.9 km/s) mid-crustal layer west of the Harrison fault extending to 21 km depth; (iv) high-velocity (6.75–7.1 km/s) lower crustal layer; (v) low-velocity gradient upper mantle with depth to Moho at 34–37 km beneath most of the Coast Belt, decreasing to 30 km beneath the eastern Insular Belt, a depth much less than previous estimates. The inferred crustal velocity structure beneath the WCB is consistent with the three-layer electrical conductivity structure for this area derived from magnetotelluric surveys. The association of high resistivities with the upper crust suggests that the upper 8–12 km represents the massive cover of plutonic rocks which characterizes the WCB. Middle and lower crustal velocities beneath the WCB are consistent with Wrangellian velocities found beneath Vancouver Island, suggesting Wrangellia may extend at depth eastward as far as the Harrison fault.

COLLISIONS between continents generate the world's most striking mountains; the deep structure of these collision zones, inferred from seismic reflection profiles1–3, can be equally dramatic, if less well understood. Improved knowledge of the structure of ancient collisional belts, now known to have developed through plate tectonic processes4,5, can provide important new insights into the mechanisms of crustal growth. Although many such belts have been partly destroyed by severe post-collisional deformation6,7 or magmatism8, some have been preserved in the stable interiors of continents9: one example is the Early Proterozoic Trans-Hudson orogen9,10, in western Canada. Here we present seismic reflection images across the entire orogen, which reveal a broadly symmetric structure, with reflections linked to island-arc rocks dipping beneath both bounding Archaean cratons. The observed reflection geometries imply a doubling of crustal thickness during the collision, along crust-penetrating faults. The presence of a significant amount of Archaean crust at depth, the extent of which could not have been determined from surface mapping, suggests the need for caution in inferring crustal growth rate from the surface area of juvenile crust11,12.

The Lithoprobe seismic reflection transect across the southern Coast Mountains of the Canadian Cordillera images fundamental crustal structures presumably related to collision of the Intermontane and Insular composite terranes, and deep levels in the upper plate of the offshore Cascadia subduction belt. The eastern part of the Coast Mountains are characterized by east dipping upper crustal reflectors that project to exposed faults and east dipping lower crustal reflectors; they are truncated by subhorizontal to west dipping middle and upper crustal reflectors. These geometric relationships are interpreted to have formed during an early phase of primarily west directed contraction that created the east dipping structures of the upper and lower crust, and a later phase of east directed shortening caused by wedging of the Intermontane belt into the lower and middle crust of the tectonic stack. Subsequently, the Coast belt may have been displaced eastward on contractional faults that ascend from the lower crust beneath the Intermontane belt and surface in the Omineca and Foreland belts. Extensional faults bounding the east flank of the Coast Mountains and west flank of the central Nicola horst in the Intermontane belt flatten into the middle and lower crust of the intervening region and geometrically outline crustal boudinage. Within the western Coast Mountains, east dipping reflections spanning the middle crust to upper mantle are traced updip to Vancouver Island and the underlying Cascadia subduction zone. The C reflector on Vancouver Island is believed to separate Wrangellia from underlying accreted terranes and is correlated to the mainland where it forms the upper boundary of a reflective lower crustal wedge that flattens into the Moho. If the Moho is not a young feature, then some accreted material appears to have wedged into the continental framework above the crust-mantle boundary, possibly causing shortening in the overlying crust and creating midcrustal ramps observed on the reflection data. The structurally lower E reflections, interpreted as shear zones, originate at the subduction contact offshore and project landward into sub-Moho reflections within the upper plate on the Mainland. The region between the E reflector and the descending oceanic plate is interpreted to be subducted lower continental crust and mantle.

LITHOPROBE is Canada's national, collaborative, multidisciplinary geoscience project directed toward an enhanced understanding of how the North American continent has evolved. Research in its eight transects, which span the country and geological time, are spearheaded by seismic reflection studies. These, combined with other studies, provide new insight into the varied tectonic processes that have been active in forming the continent. The Archean Kapuskasing Structural Zone, a prominent feature which cuts obliquely across east-west Superior Province structures, has been imaged as a low-angle thrust sheet above a major decollement, along which 55–70 km of crustal shortening has occurred to bring mid-crustal rocks to the surface. The shortening was accomplished by brittle faulting and erosion at levels above 20 km and ductile shear and flow in the lower crust. The GLIMPCE transect in Lake Huron shows a spectacular series of east-dipping crustal-scale reflections that coincide with the Grenville Front Tectonic Zone. A two-stage model involves terrane collision with the cratonic margin in the Early Proterozoic followed by crustal-scale stacking and ramping associated with the Middle Proterozoic Grenvillian orogeny. In Lake Superior, GLIMPCE data reveal the structure of the Middle Proterozoic mid-continent rift that almost splits North America. The Lithoprobe East transect covering the Paleozoic Newfoundland Appalachians reveals three lower crustal. blocks, defined seismically on the basis of reflectivity characteristics imaged along the seismic profiles. Reflective upper crust can be related to geological structures at the surface; the thin-skinned tectonics implied have yet to be reconciled with the block tectonics of the lower crust. Results from the southern Canadian Cordillera show that the Mesozoic-Cenozoic east-west shortening in the eastern and central Cordillera occurred by compressional deformation forming crustal-scale antiforms that overrode a westward thinning cratonic North America; and in the western Cordillera by subduction processes that have tectonically eroded the lower lithosphere of accreted terranes and left underplated sediments and oceanic lithosphere. The reflection Moho has highly variable characteristics as imaged within transects and among different transects. Crustal and Moho reflectivity is caused by a wide range of features, including fault/shear zones, lithologie contacts, compositional layering, fluids in zones of high porosity, and anisotropy.

Multichannel vibroseis reflection surveys are prevalent in the land exploration seismic industry because of benefits in speed and cost, along with reduced environmental impact when compared to explosive sources. Since the downgoing energy must travel through the shallow subsurface, an improved model of near-surface velocity can in theory substantially improve the resolution of deeper reflections. We describe techniques aimed at allowing the use of vibroseis data for long-offset refraction processing of first-arrival traveltimes and waveforms. Waveform tomography combines inversion of first-arrival traveltime data with full waveform inversion of densely-sampled refracted arrivals. A number of challenges are presented by the characteristics of vibroseis acquisition; we discuss some of these challenges and techniques to mitigate them. Through the use of waveform tomography, we plan to build useful, detailed near-surface velocity models for both the reflection work flow and direct interpretation.

Lithoprobe is Canada's national, collaborative, multidisciplinary earth science research program directed toward an enhanced understanding of how the North American continent evolved. Research in its eight transects or study areas, which span the country from Vancouver Island to Newfoundland and geological time from 4 Ga to the present, is spearheaded by seismic reflection surveys. These, combined with many other studies, are providing new insight into the varied tectonic processes that have been active in forming the continent. Results from the Southern Cordillera transect show that Mesozoic crustal growth occurred in the central and eastern Cordillera by the accretion and amalgamation of exotic terranes, the collision of which resulted in the generation of crustal-scale antiforms and duplexes. After the principal periods of compression, this area was affected by a major episode of extension that led to the unroofing of the metamorphic core complexes. Farther to the west, past and present subduction processes have eroded the lower lithosphere of accreted terranes and left underplated sediments and oceanic lithosphere. The Lithoprobe East transect, covering the Paleozoic Newfoundland Appalachians and Mesozoic rifted Atlantic margin, reveals three lower crustal blocks, each with distinctive reflection signatures on marine seismic data. Structures of the geologically established tectono-stratigraphic domains, imaged clearly by new onshore reflection data, sole at upper crustal to mid-crustal levels, suggesting that much of the surface stratigraphy is allochthonous to the lower crustal blocks. At the ocean–continent transition, interpretations suggest underplating of thinned continental crust by basaltic melt during the rifting process.In Lake Superior, data from the Great Lakes International Multidisciplinary Program on Crustal Evolution (GLIMPCE) transect reveal the complex structures of the late Middle Proterozoic Keweenawan rift, which is up to 35 km deep, that almost split North America. The GLIMPCE data in Lake Huron show a spectacular series of east-dipping crustal-scale reflections that coincide with the Grenville front tectonic zone. These and other data have led to a two-stage model involving collision of an exotic terrane with the southern Superior cratonic margin in the late Early Proterozoic followed by stacking–crustal penetrating imbrication and ramping associated with the Middle Proterozoic Grenvillian orogeny. The Archean Kapuskasing structural zone, a prominent northeast-trending feature that cuts obliquely across the dominant east-west structures of the Superior Province, is interpreted as a thin thrust sheet, soled by a variably reflective décollement, above which about 70 km of crustal shortening has occurred to bring mid-crustal to lower crustal rocks to the surface, and below which the Moho deepens. The shortening may have been accomplished by brittle faulting and erosion at levels above 20 km and ductile folding or faulting in the lower crust. Preliminary studies in the Archean Abitibi greenstone belt indicate that two major fault zones, the Larder Lake–Cadillac and Porcupine–Destor, which host significant mineralization, were generated by crustal-scale thrust and (or) strike-slip tectonics. Archean crustal sections are as structurally diverse and complex as their Proterozoic and Phanerozoic counterparts. The reflection Moho has highly variable characteristics as imaged within transects and among different transects. Crustal and Moho reflectivity observed in the various transects is caused by a wide range of features, including fault–shear zones, lithologic contacts, compositional layering, fluids in zones of high porosity, and anisotropy.

As part of the Lithoprobe Southern Cordillera transect, seismic refraction data were recorded along a 330 km long strike profile in the Intermontane belt. An iterative combination of two-dimensional traveltime inversion and amplitude forward modelling was used to interpret crust and upper mantle P-wave velocity structure. This region is characterized by (i) a thin near-surface layer with large variations in velocity between 2.8 and 5.4 km/s, and low-velocity regions that correlate well with surface expressions of Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks; (ii) an upper and middle crust with low average velocity gradient, possibly a weak low-velocity zone, and lateral velocity variations between 6.0 and 6.4 km/s; (iii) a distinctive lower crust characterized by significantly higher average velocities relative to midcrustal values beginning at 23 km depth, approximately 8 km thick with average velocities of 6.5 and 6.7 km/s at top and base; (iv) a depth to Moho, as defined by wide-angle reflections, that averages 33 km with variations up to 2 km; and (v) a Moho transition zone of depth extent 1–3 km, below which lies the upper mantle with velocities decreasing from 7.9 km/s in the south to 7.7 km/s in the north. Where the refraction line obliquely crosses a Lithoprobe deep seismic-reflection profile, good agreement is obtained between the interpreted reflection section and the derived velocity structure model. In particular, depths to wide-angle reflectors in the upper crust agree with depths to prominent reflection events, and Moho depths agree within 1 km. From this comparison, the upper and middle crust probably comprise the upper part of the Quesnellia terrane. The lower crust from the refraction interpretation does not show the division into two components, parautochthonous and cratonic North America, that is inferred from the reflection data, indicating that their physical properties are not significantly different within the resolution of the refraction data. Based on these interpretations, the lower lithosphere of Quesnellia is absent and presumably was recycled in the mantle. At a depth of ~ 16 km below the Moho, an upper mantle reflector may represent the base of the present lithosphere.