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Little is known about migration during pregnancy related to intimate partner violence (IPV). In this paper, we examine issues of agency in relation to pregnant women's migrations in a high HIV prevalence area of Kenya. We qualitatively explored forced migration among pregnant women, using data from in-depth interviews, focus groups and IPV screening forms. To quantitatively examine migration during pregnancy, we analysed data from a prospective study of 614 pregnant women. The qualitative data revealed that women had varied responses to violence in pregnancy, with some being able to leave the marital home voluntarily as a strategy to escape violence. Others were 'sent packing' from their marital homes when they dared to exercise autonomy, in some cases related to HIV status. Quantitative analyses revealed that pregnant women who migrated were more educated, less likely to be living with a partner and had fewer children than other women. Migration among pregnant women in Kenya illustrates the complexity of understanding women's agency in the context of IPV. The findings indicate that there is not a dichotomy between 'victim' and 'agent', but rather a complex dynamic between and within pregnant women, who may sequentially or simultaneously experience aspects of victimhood and/or agentic response.

The purpose of this study was to analyze pornography exposure in a sample of 702 Italian adolescents (46% males; mean age = 18.2, SD = 0.8). Among male students, 11% were not exposed, 44.5% were exposed to nonviolent material, and 44.5% were exposed to violent/degrading material. Among female students, 60.8% were not exposed, 20.4% were exposed to nonviolent material, and 18.8% were exposed to violent/degrading material. Among males, adjusted odds ratio (AdjOR) of exposure to violent/degrading pornography were higher if using alcohol, having friends who sell/buy sex, and taking sexual pictures. Females who were victims of family violence, attending technical/vocational schools, and taking sexual pictures had higher AdjOR of watching violent pornography; smoking and having friends who sell/buy sex were associated with both nonviolent and violent/degrading exposure. Exposure to violent/degrading pornography is common among adolescents, associated with at-risk behaviors, and, for females, it correlates with a history of victimization. School nurses have a pivotal role in including discussions about pornography in interventions about relationships, sexuality, or violence.

Violence against women, and more particularly male partner violence, is frequent. Although there are many studies on the consequences of violence on women's mental health, a number of aspects are still unclear. The impact of violence is seldom studied in the context of other risk factors of mental distress, psychological abuse is rarely considered, and older women are generally excluded from the sample. This study aims to analyze the relationships between current and past violence and three indicators of current women's health psychological distress, the use of psychoactive drugs and a subjective evaluation of health controlling for demographic and social characteristics. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among patients of family practices in an Italian town and 444 women responded to a self-administrated questionnaire: 20% of them had experienced some kind of abuse in the last 12 months and 5.2% reported physical or sexual aggression, mostly (4%) inflicted by a partner or ex-partner. Current violence was strongly associated with psychological distress, the use of psychoactive drugs and a negative evaluation of health. Experiencing solely psychological abuse with no sexual or physical violence was also associated with impaired health. The relationship between current violence and health was independent of age. After controlling for age, education, children, marital and employment status, women victims of partner violence were around 6 times more likely to be depressed and to feel in bad health, and 4 times more likely to use psychoactive pills than other women. Moreover, there was a strong association between past and current violence. Compared to women who reported no violence, women who reported both types were 5.95 times, women who reported only current but no past violence were 4.81 times, and women who reported only past but no current violence were 3.01 times more likely to report psychological distress. Keywords: Interpersonal violence; Psychological abuse: Mental health; Depression: Women's health: Italy

Objective: Understanding the impediments that prevented sexually abused adolescents from disclosure to their family or to professionals, and analyzing the responses they received when they did disclose. Methods: In depth anonymous interviews were conducted in Italy through a toll-free telephone line with 36 young people who experienced sexual abuse in adolescence. A qualitative analysis was carried out of the adolescents' feelings, fears and needs, and of the help received, if any. Results: The main impediments to disclose to a family member were fear of not being believed, shame, and fear of causing trouble to the family. The main impediments for not seeking services were ignorance of the existence/functioning of protective agencies, wish to keep the secret, lack of awareness of being abused, mistrust of adults and professionals, and fear of the consequences of disclosure. When they did disclose to professionals, the teens received very limited support. Conclusion: Adolescents need to receive proper information about the risk of being sexually abused and about the help they can receive from their social network and protective agencies. There is a crucial need for appropriate training of professionals. Keywords: Sexual abuse; Adolescence; Disclosure; Qualitative research

Objective: The aims of this work are to analyze the associations between violence suffered at the hands of fathers and mothers in childhood and adolescence and three outcomes in adulthood--having or not having children, marital status, and occupational status--controlling for the possible impact of partner violence. Method: This cross-sectional study examined a sample of 510 women, attending various health care and social services facilities in a Northern Italian city. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Results: Almost one quarter of the respondents reported some kind of abuse by one or both parents, and 18.2% had experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a partner or ex-partner; women abused by parents were more likely to experience partner violence. Irrespective of whether they experienced partner violence, women abused by parents were more likely to be childless, divorced or never married, and in a precarious occupational situation. Conclusions: This study is the first one carried out in Italy on this subject: results largely confirmed the trends found in studies in other countries. However, two of the associations which emerged, namely between parents' abuse and being divorced or never married and between parents' abuse and being childless, are worth noting, since they could be interpreted as failures or, on the contrary, as active and positive choices made by abused women in a difficult context. Qualitative data from case histories provided insights into the violence some women have suffered and its consequences, but also into women's great resilience and strengths. Keywords: Parents' violence; Socio-demographic indicators; Vulnerabilities and strengths of victims

Violence against women is frequent, and has serious consequences for their physical and mental health. Until now, a common response of health services and professionals to victims has been the denial of the violence. The aims of this study were to estimate the prevalence of present and past violence among women attending social and health services in Trieste (Italy) for any reasons, and to evaluate the feasibility of asking them about violence. Five public health care facilities were involved: a hospital-based Emergency Department, two 'Consultorio Familiare', and two community-based Social service centers. The final sample consisted of 510 women; the response rate among eligible women was 76% across all facilities. The study revealed a high prevalence of different kinds of violence, mostly perpetrated by men well known to the victim. Among the women interviewed, 10.2% had experienced physical/sexual violence in the last 12 months, regardless of perpetrator. Violence by a male partner or former partner occurred in 6.4% of women; by other relatives, 1.6% of women; and by 'other' persons 3.3% of women. The results demonstrated the feasibility of 'asking about violence' in all cases; moreover, those women who had been abused were often eager to talk about it. A systematic approach to the issue of violence is a necessary condition for responding appropriately to the needs of women who have experienced or are experiencing violence. Nevertheless, to avoid the replication of a common bias against victims of violence, health and social personnel should be appropriately trained before 'asking all cases' becomes a policy within health and social services. Keywords: Violence against women; Screening for violence; Health services; Italy

This article explores the risk of sexual and physical violence against women who had experienced abuse by their parents. The authors argue that women who had been abused by their parents, especially by their mothers, were at higher risk of suffering from sexual abuse and domestic violence.

Author's Abstract, COPYRIGHT 1999, Elsevier Science Ltd. The aim of this report is to present results on the factors associated with psychological distress in 724 Italian and 629 French women 12 months after birth. The prevalence of distress was ascertained by the 12-item Goldberg Health Questionnaire (GHQ), using a cut-off score of >5. Results show that, in both countries, after controlling for previous psychological health, the variables significantly associated wtih mothers' distress were: an unsatisfactory couple relationship; lack of a confidant; a baby with serious health problems, financial worries. In Italy, also being an older mother and a discrepancy between actual and desired employment status were associated with a high GHQ score. These results point out to the high prevalence of mothers' psychological distress in Latin countries too, and stress the role played by family and social factors.