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Amphibian parasites of the genus Amphibiocystidium are members of the class Ichthyosporea (=Mesomycetozoea), within the order Dermocystida. Most of the species in the Dermocystida fail to grow in ordinary culture media, so their life cycle has only been partially constructed by studies in host tissues. However, to date, there have been few reports on the life cycle of Amphibiocystidium parasites with respect to the developmental life stages of both Dermocystidium and Rhinosporidium parasites. In this study, we provide light and electron microscopic findings of developmental phenotypes of Amphibiocystidium sp., a parasite previously characterized in the Italian stream frog (Rana italica), which has caused an ongoing infection in a natural population of Central Italy. These phenotypes exhibited distinct morphological characteristics that were similar to A. ranae from the skin of R. temporaria, but showed histochemical properties particularly comparable with those of maturing phenotypes of Rhinosporidium seeberi, and compatible with fungal-like parasites. Therefore, for Amphibiocystidium sp. phenotypes, we suggest adopting the terminology used for maturing stages of R. seeberi, such as juvenile sporangia, early mature sporangia and mature sporangia. The characterization of these developmental stages will be useful to increase the understanding of the life cycle of parasites of the genus Amphibiocystidium and of the interactions with their amphibian hosts.

Mesomycetozoean-induced infections (order Dermocystida, genusAmphibiocystidium) in European and North American amphibians are causing alarm. To date, the pathogenicity of these parasites in field conditions has been poorly studied, and demographic consequences on amphibian populations have not been explored. In this study, anAmphibiocystidiumsp. infection is reported in a natural population of the Italian stream frog (Rana italica) of Central Italy, over a 7-year period from 2008 to 2014. Light and electron microscope examinations, as well as partial 18S rDNA sequence analysis were used to characterize the parasite. Moreover, a capture-mark-recapture study was conducted to assess the frog demographics in response to infection. Negative effects of amphibiocystidiosis on individual survival and population fitness were absent throughout the sampling period, despite the high estimates of disease prevalence. This might have been due to resistance and/or tolerance strategies developed by the frogs in response to the persistence ofAmphibiocystidiuminfection in this system. We hypothesized that in the examinedR. italicapopulation, amphibiocystidiosis is an ongoing endemic/epidemic infection. However, ecological and host-specific factors, interacting in a synergistic fashion, might be responsible for variations in the susceptibility toAmphibiocystidiuminfection of both conspecific populations and heterospecific individuals ofR. italica.

In human and wildlife populations, the natural microbiota plays an important role in health maintenance and the prevention of emerging infectious diseases. In amphibians, infectious diseases have been closely associated with population decline and extinction worldwide. Skin symbiont communities have been suggested as one of the factors driving the different susceptibilities of amphibians to diseases. The activity of the skin microbiota of amphibians against fungal pathogens, such as Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has been examined extensively, whereas its protective role towards the cutaneous infectious diseases caused by Amphibiocystidium parasites has not yet been elucidated in detail. In the present study, we investigated, for the first time, the cutaneous microbiota of the Italian stream frog (Rana italica) and characterized the microbial assemblages of frogs uninfected and infected by Amphibiocystidium using the Illumina next-generation sequencing of 16S rRNA gene fragments. A total of 629 different OTUs belonging to 16 different phyla were detected. Bacterial populations shared by all individuals represented only one fifth of all OTUs and were dominated by a small number of OTUs. Statistical analyses based on Bray-Curtis distances showed that uninfected and infected specimens had distinct cutaneous bacterial community structures. Phylotypes belonging to the genera Janthinobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Flavobacterium were more abundant, and sometimes almost exclusively present, in uninfected than in infected specimens. These bacterial populations, known to exhibit antifungal activity in amphibians, may also play a role in protection against cutaneous infectious diseases caused by Amphibiocystidium parasites.

In long-lived organisms, the impacts of environmental changes may become evident after time, possibly in future generations. In this study, we attempt to reveal possible delayed effects of meteorological changes on mixed populations of water frogs living in small water bodies located in the Tiber River basin, by using a time-lagged correlation analysis. The analysis shows that the temperature–precipitation pattern induces definite delayed effects, which suggest two potential, possibly co-occurring, explanatory effects: (I) a cumulative and symmetric effect on mortality and (II) a point and asymmetric effect on recruitment. Our data suggest that the water availability in late summer–early autumn affects the survival of tadpoles and migrating frogs, with no differential effect on the parental species Pelophylax bergeri and the hybrid Pelophylax kl. hispanicus, whereas autumn precipitation has a greater impact on the fecundity and/or reproductive success of the parental species. The best time-lagged regression equations between population data and the annual de Martonne aridity index (I DMa) indicate that I DMa

There have been a few studies on the negative effects of pollutants on amphibian skin, the first structural barrier that interacts with the environment and its potential contaminants. In this study an ex vivo skin organ culture from the amphibian Pelophylax bergeri was used to evaluate cell stress responses induced by short-term exposure to cadmium (Cd), a toxic heavy metal known to be an environmental hazard to both humans and wildlife. Histopathological studies were carried out on skin explants using light microscopy and changes in the expression of stress proteins, such as Metallothionein (MT) and Heat shock proteins (HSPs), were investigated by Real-time RT-PCR. Results revealed that amphibian skin reacts to Cd-induced stress by activating biological responses such as morphological alterations and dose- and time-dependent induction of Mt and Hsp70 mRNA expression, suggesting their potential role as biomarkers of exposure to Cd. This work provides a basis for a better understanding of the tissue-specific responses of amphibian skin as a target organ to Cd exposure and its in vitro use for testing potentially harmful substances present in the environment.