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Abstract Background Human Papillomavirus (HPV) in cervical epithelium has been identified as the main etiological factor in the developing of Cervical Cancer (CC), which has recently become a public health problem in Mexico. This finding has allowed for the development of vaccines that help prevent this infection. In the present study, we aimed to determine the prevalence and HPV type-distribution in Mexican women with CC, high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), and Normal cytology (N) to estimate the impact of the HPV vaccines. Methods The PubMed database was used to identify and review all articles that reported data on HPV prevalence in CC, precursor lesions, and normal cytology of Mexican women. Results A total of 8,706 samples of the tissues of Mexican women were stratified according to diagnosis as follows: 499 for CC; 364 for HSIL; 1,425 for LSIL, and 6,418 for N. According to the results, the most prevalent genotypes are the following: HPV16 (63.1%), -18 (8.6%), -58, and −31 (5%) for CC; HPV-16 (28.3%), 58 (12.6%), 18 (7.4%), and 33 (6.5%) for HSIL; HPV-16 (13.1%), 33 (7.4%), 18 (4.2%), and 58 (2.6%) for LSIL, and HPV-16 (3.4%), 33 (2.1%), 18, and 58 (1.2%) for N. Conclusions Taken together, genotypes 58 and 31 (10%) are more common than type 18 (8.6%) in CC. Therefore, the inclusion of these two genotypes in a second-generation vaccine would provide optimal prevention of CC in Mexico.

The diagnosis and identification of melanoma are not always accurate, even for experienced dermatologists. Histopathology continues to be the gold standard, assessing specific parameters such as the Breslow index. However, it remains invasive and may lack effectiveness. Therefore, leveraging mathematical modeling and informatics has been a pursuit of diagnostic methods favoring early detection. Fractality, a mathematical parameter quantifying complexity and irregularity, has proven useful in melanoma diagnosis. Nonetheless, no studies have implemented this metric to feed artificial intelligence algorithms for the automatic classification of dermatological lesions, including melanoma. Hence, this study aimed to determine the combined utility of fractal dimension and unsupervised low-computational-requirements machine learning models in classifying melanoma and non-melanoma lesions. We analyzed 39,270 dermatological lesions obtained from the International Skin Imaging Collaboration. Box-counting fractal dimensions were calculated for these lesions. Fractal values were used to implement classification methods by unsupervised machine learning based on principal component analysis and iterated K-means (100 iterations). A clear separation was observed, using only fractal dimension values, between benign or malignant lesions (sensibility 72.4% and specificity 50.1%) and melanoma or non-melanoma lesions (sensibility 72.8% and specificity 50%) and subsequently, the classification quality based on the machine learning model was ≈80% for both benign and malignant or melanoma and non-melanoma lesions. However, the grouping of metastatic melanoma versus non-metastatic melanoma was less effective, probably due to the small sample size included in MM lesions. Nevertheless, we could suggest a decision algorithm based on fractal dimension for dermatological lesion discrimination. On the other hand, it was also determined that the fractal dimension is sufficient to generate unsupervised artificial intelligence models that allow for a more efficient classification of dermatological lesions.

Background and Objectives : Leukemia, characterized by abnormal leukocyte production, exhibits clonal origin from somatic mutations. Globally, it ranked 15th in cancer incidence in 2020, with higher prevalence in developing countries. In Mexico, it was the ninth most frequent cancer. Regional registries are vital for understanding its epidemiology. This study aims to analyze the prevalence and age-standardized incidence rates of leukemias in a tertiary care hospital in the Mexican Bajio region. Materials and Methods : Leukemia cases from 2008-2018 were analyzed, and 535 medical records were included in this study. The prevalence, distribution, and age-specific incidence rate of different types and subtypes of leukemia were determined according to sex and age groups. Results : Overall, 65.79% consisted of lymphocytic leukemia, 33.64% of myeloid leukemia, and 0.56% of monocytic leukemia. No significant sex-based differences were found, but age-specific patterns were observed. Leukemia distribution by age revealed significant associations. Lymphocytic leukemia dominated in the pediatric population, particularly acute lymphocytic leukemia, while myeloid leukemia shifted towards adulthood. Age-specific incidence patterns showed, first, that lymphocytic leukemia is the most common leukemia in pediatric ages, and second, there is a shift from acute lymphocytic leukemia dominance in pediatric ages to myeloid leukemia incidence in late adulthood, emphasizing nuanced epidemiological dynamics. Conclusions : Acute leukemia cases occurred with high prevalence in our study population, with a high incidence in pediatric and adulthood populations, especially for acute lymphocytic leukemia, showing a (<18 years) 153.8 age-standardized incidence rate in the pediatric group, while in the adult population, the age-standardized rate was 59.84. In the age-specific analysis, we found that the childhood group (5-9 years) were the most affected by acute lymphocytic leukemia in the pediatric population, while in the adult population, the early-adulthood group (15-29 years) were the most affected age group. In contrast, chronic myeloid leukemia affected both adults and the pediatric populations, while chronic lymphocytic leukemia and monocytic leukemia were exclusive to adults. The study underscores the need for tailored diagnostic, treatment, and preventive strategies based on age, contributing valuable insights into the leukemia epidemiology of the Bajio region.

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a hematopoietic stem cell disorder characterized by the presence of the Philadelphia chromosome, a product of the reciprocal translocation t(9;22)(q34;q11), in the BCR and ABL genes. These rearrangements in both genes lead to the formation of various fusion mRNA products, with preferential expression of b2a2 , b3a2 , and other BCR::ABL1 mRNA variants, combined with additional chromosomal abnormalities. Notably, the distribution and frequency of different mRNA variants vary in different populations. However, studies concerning this in Mexico are limited, and the results have been inconclusive. This study therefore aimed to determine the distribution of BCR::ABL1 mRNA variants in different clinical phases of CML and their effect on hematological parameters and patient survival. This study included 33 patients, whose demographic, clinical, and molecular data on BCR::ABL1 mRNA variants and hematological parameters were collected to identify potential associations. A total of 84.8% (n = 28) of patients had BCR::ABL1 translocation and increased platelet and basophil counts. The most frequent mRNA variant was b3a2 (64.3%), followed by b2a2 (28.6%) and e1a2 (3.6%). Concerning the clinical phases of CML, 75.8% (n = 25), 21.2% (n = 7), and 3% (n = 1) of patients were in the chronic, blast, and accelerated phases, respectively. Moreover, the b3a2 mRNA variant was more commonly identified in patients in the chronic phase. No correlation was observed between mRNA variant expression and patient survival. However, b2a2 was indicative of patients with longer survival as well as those treated with imatinib or nilotinib. Additionally, platelet count could be a marker of BCR::ABL1 translocation.

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is associated with the Philadelphia chromosome and distinct BCR::ABL1 gene transcripts. We assessed the frequencies of these transcripts in Mexico, Latin America, and worldwide. We determined the prevalence of BCR::ABL1 transcripts in CML patients and intercontinental or regional variations using specialized databases and keywords. We analyzed 34 studies from 20 countries, encompassing 5795 patients. Keyword-based searches in specialized databases guided data collection. ANOVA was employed for transcript distribution analysis. The b3a2 transcript was most prevalent globally, followed by b2a2 , with e1a2 being the least frequent. Interestingly, Mexico City exhibited a higher incidence of b2a2 , while b3a2 predominated in the remaining country. Overall, no significant intercontinental or regional variations were observed. b3a2 was the most common BCR::ABL1 transcript worldwide, with b2a2 following closely; e1a2 was infrequent. Notably, this trend remained consistent in Mexico. Evaluating transcript frequencies holds clinical relevance for CML management. Understanding the frequency of transcript informs personalized CML treatments.

Soldiers in active military service need optimal physical fitness for successfully carrying out their operations. Therefore, their health status is regularly checked by army doctors. These inspections include physical parameters such as the body-mass index (BMI), functional tests, and biochemical studies. If a medical exam reveals an individual's excess weight, further examinations are made, and corrective actions for weight lowering are initiated. The collection of urine is non-invasive and therefore attractive for frequent metabolic screening. We compared the chemical profiles of urinary samples of 146 normal weight, excess weight, and obese soldiers of the Mexican Army, using untargeted metabolomics with liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-MS). In combination with data mining, statistical and metabolic pathway analyses suggest increased S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) levels and changes of amino acid metabolites as important variables for overfeeding. We will use these potential biomarkers for the ongoing metabolic monitoring of soldiers in active service. In addition, after validation of our results, we will develop biochemical screening tests that are also suitable for civil applications., Competing Interests: Robert Winkler is an Academic Editor of PeerJ and Section Editor of PeerJ Plant Biology., (©2022 Albores-Mendez et al.)

Background: The inflammatory response in gout disease is induced by the activation of NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLPR3) signaling pathway mediated by IL-1β release., Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within NLRP3 inflammasome genes and gout susceptibility., Methods: Mexican patients with gout from the National Rehabilitation Institute and General Hospital of Mexico were enrolled. A healthy control group was also included. We analyzed the frequency and allelic distribution of eight SNPs from seven different genes within the NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway: TLR4 rs2149356, CD14 rs2569190, NLRP3 rs3806268, NLRP3 rs10754558, CARD8 rs2043211, IL-1β rs1143623, P2RX7 rs3751142, and PPARGC1B rs45520937 SNPs., Results: We found that the SNP rs45520937 of PPARGC1B was associated with the risk of developing gout when it was analyzed using the dominant model (Odds ratio [OR] = 2.30; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.09-4.86; p = 0.030), and it is proposed that the adaptor molecule CD14 rs2569190 polymorphism could be associated with a lower risk of gout under an additive model (OR= 0.41;95% CI: 0.16-1.05; p = 0.064). No significant associations were identified for the remaining SNPs., Conclusion: Our findings suggest that the PPARGC1B rs45520937 SNP is associated with gout susceptibility.

Introduction: The prevalence of the different genotypes of human papillomavirus (HPV) varies depending on lesion severity and geographic region., Objective: To identify multiple HPV infections in low- and high-grade cervical lesions in a group of women from the Mexican Bajío region referred with inconclusive cytology., Methods: Pilot study of women referred from primary care units of Guanajuato, Mexico, with cytology suggestive of cervical lesion. Cervical smears were subjected to DNA extraction and HPV genotyping using microarrays., Results: 100 consecutive cases were collected and 90 were analyzed; HPV positivity was observed in 26% of healthy women, and 62% had some degree of cervical lesion. The most common HPV genotypes were 59, 31, 16 and 51. Multiple infections were found in most samples., Conclusions: HPV heterogeneity was identified in the samples of the study population in contrast to worldwide reports; furthermore, multiple infections are common in precursor lesions and decrease in high-grade lesions. These data could have an impact on current HPV vaccination programs., (Copyright: © 2022 Permanyer.)

Background: Cervical Cancer (CC) is a worldwide public health concern associated with genetic alterations, among these the gain of the 19q chromosome harboring the Pregnancy Specific Glycoproteins (PSG) gene family. These proteins play a critical role in pregnancy, with participation in immunotolerance, angiogenesis, and invasion processes, which are also observed in carcinogenesis. The aim of this study was to determine the molecular alterations of PSG1 and its relationship with CC., Methods: PSG1 Copy Number Variation (CNV) was evaluated in 31 CC and eight normal cervical tissues by qPCR. PSG1 expression was correlated with HPV detection and IL-10 and TGF-β expression in CC samples. Finally, PSG1 protein expression was evaluated by immunofluorescence in CC cell lines, by immunohistochemistry in a tissue microarray, and by immunoblotting in the sera of women with normal cervix, pre-invasive lesions, and CC., Results: PSG1 showed a gain of 25.6% in CNV and gene expression in CC. There was a lack of PSG1 expression in normal cervical epithelium and positive immunostaining in 57% of CC tissues, while all CC cell lines expressed PSG1. Finally, PSG1 was immunodetected in 90% of pre-invasive lesions and in all CC serum samples, but not in healthy women. PSG1 expression correlates with the expression of IL-10 and TGF-β in CC tissues, but not with the presence of HPV., Conclusion: These data show evidence of the differential expression of PSG1 in CC that could explain its participation in tumor-biology and immunotolerance mechanisms. Further, its immunodetection could provide early detection of this cancer., (Copyright © 2020 IMSS. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

BORIS is a transcription factor aberrantly expressed in human cancers that can regulate the expression of estrogen receptors in endometrial cancer and breast cancer. We evaluated the expression of BORIS and the estrogen receptors alpha (ER-α) and beta (ER-β) in ten cell lines derived from cervical cancer using RT-PCR and Western-blot. We also evaluated 54 cervical tissues: normal epithelia, low-grade intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), high-grade intraepithelial lesions (HSIL), and invasive squamous carcinomas (SC) using immunohistochemistry. In the cell lines, BORIS mRNA and protein expressions are associated with ER-β expression but not with ER-α expression. In the normal cervical epithelium, ER-α and ER-β were expressed but the BORIS protein was not detected. In the LSIL samples, BORIS, ER-α and ER-β were expressed; however, in the HSIL samples, only the BORIS and ER-β expressions were detected, but ER-α expression was minimal or null. In the SC, only BORIS and ER-β were detected. In summary, the results show that the expressions of BORIS and ER-β increase while the expression of ER-α decreases according to the severity of the lesions. These results suggest synergistic roles for BORIS and ER-β during cervical cancer progression with a possible regulation of the estrogen receptors by BORIS in the development of cervical cancer; however, more detailed studies are needed to confirm this suggestion and to determine the precise role of BORIS in cervical cancer., Competing Interests: None., (IJCEP Copyright © 2019.)

Background and Objective: Cervical cancer is an important health problem in our country. It is known that there are several risk factors for this neoplasm, and it has been suggested that cervical microbiome alterations could play a role in the development and progress of cancer. Bacterial vaginosis associated bacteria such as Atopobium vaginae and Gardnerella vaginalis has been suggested as potential risk factor for cervical lesions and cervical cancer., Material and Methods: DNA from 177 cervical scraping samples was studied: 104 belonged to women without cytological or colposcopic alterations and 73 samples from precursor lesions with previous human papillomavirus (HPV) infection history. All samples were screened for Atopobium vaginae, Gardnerella vaginalis and HPV by PCR., Results: High HPV prevalence was found in precursor samples, and 30% of samples without lesions were positive for HPV. Virtually all samples contained sequences of both bacteria, and interestingly, there was not HPV association observed; these results could suggest that these microorganisms could be part of the cervical microbiome in Mexican population., Conclusions: The results obtained indicate that the bacteria analysed could be part of normal biome in Mexican women, suggesting a potential reconsideration of the pathogen role of these microorganisms., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Background: This study presents a prediction of putative miRNA within several Human Papillomavirus (HPV) types by using bioinformatics tools and a strategy based on sequence and structure alignment. Currently, little is known about HPV miRNAs., Methods: Computational methods have been widely applied in the identification of novel miRNAs when analyzing genome sequences. Here, ten whole-genome sequences from HPV-6, -11, -16, -18, -31, -33, -35, -45, -52, and -58 were analyzed. Software based on local contiguous structure-sequence features and support vector machine (SVM), as well as additional bioinformatics tools, were utilized for identification and classification of real and pseudo microRNA precursors., Results: An initial analysis predicted 200 putative pre-miRNAs for all the ten HPV genome variants. To derive a smaller set of pre-miRNAs candidates, stringent validation criteria was conducted by applying <‒10 ΔG value (Gibbs Free Energy). Thus, only pre-miRNAs with total scores above the cut-off points of 90% were considered as putative pre-miRNAs. As a result of this strategy, 19 pre-miRNAs were selected (hpv-pre-miRNAs). These novel pre-miRNAs were located in different clusters within HPV genomes and some of them were positioned at splice regions. Additionally, the 19 identified pre-miRNAs sequences varied between HPV genotypes. Interestingly, the newly identified miRNAs, 297, 27b, 500, 501-5, and 509-3-5p, were closely implicated in carcinogenesis participating in cellular longevity, cell cycle, metastasis, apoptosis evasion, tissue invasion and cellular growth pathways., Conclusions: The novel putative miRNAs candidates could be promising biomarkers of HPV infection and furthermore, could be targeted for potential therapeutic interventions in HPV-induced malignancies., (Copyright © 2018 IMSS. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Epilepsy is a neuronal disease that affects up to 70 million people worldwide. The development of effective therapies to combat childhood epilepsy requires early biomarkers. Here, we performed a whole-genome microarray analysis in blood cells to identify genes differentially expressed between epileptic and epileptic valproic acid (VPA)-treated children versus normal children to obtain information about the gene expression to help us to understand genetic aspects of this disease. We found that the most significant differentially expressed genes were related to the transcriptional factor cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) that is overexpressed in children with epilepsy compared with normal children, and 6 and 12 months of VPA treatment reversed several of these changes. Interestingly, leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor 1 (LAIR1), a type I transmembrane glycoprotein that binds collagen proteins and contains CREB binding sites, was one of the more up-regulated genes in epileptic patients, and treatment with VPA strongly reversed its up-regulation. CREB up-regulates genes related to epilepsy; here, we suggest that LAIR1 could activate CREB, and together, they trigger epilepsy. After VPA treatment, LAIR1 repressed genes by disrupting the functional LAIR1⁻CREB complex, resulting in successful treatment. A functional microarray analysis offers new information that could open novel avenues of research in biomarker discovery, which may be useful for the early identification of children with a predisposition to epilepsy.

The effects of the immune system response in the malignant transformation process have been described. Molecules such as interferons are involved in such process. Interferons are small single-chained glycoproteins, involved in the first line of defense against pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites. Interferon epsilon (IFNε) is located in the 9p21.3 cytogenetic region, transcribes into a single exon mRNA. Contrary to other family members, IFNε exerts low antiviral activity. In the present work molecular alterations such as copy number variation (CNV) and expression were analyzed by available microarrays and fifty-nine cervical tissues ranging from normal to cancer and three cell lines were assessed for IFNε expression by RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and immunocytofluorescence. No significant CNV alterations were observed. Positive immunosignal was primarily present in the proliferative basal strata cells in the normal tissue, whereas in cervical cancer, all epithelial transformed cells were positive. The cell lines analyzed were HPV16, -18, and negative, all three cell-lines were positive for cytoplasmic protein presence. Interestingly, at the mRNA level, increased band intensity was observed, as the lesions were higher, and IFNε up-regulation in CC ( P=0.0001 ) is reported here. Our results suggest that up-regulation is present as an independent event from single or multiple HPV infection ( P=0.90 ). In conclusion, we suggest that IFNε mRNA up-regulation could represent a potential molecular marker in CC. Expression of IFNε might not be related to HPV infection or CNV, which could have an important role in cellular homeostasis and could influence immune related events in cervical carcinogenesis., Competing Interests: None., (IJCEP Copyright © 2018.)

Background and Aims: Different Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) obtained from several human fluids (volatolome) has been reported as potential biomarkers for a great variety of diseases including cancer. At present, volatolomic profile data of the female genital area is scarce., Methods: To identify the VOCs related to the female genitourinary area of healthy and Cervical Cancer (CC)-affected women used a pad, as a non-invasive tool for sample gathering was necessary. Used pads were analyzed by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. The data were subjected to Principal Component Analysis looking for a possible spectrum of VOCs that could help identify CC-affected patients. The diagnostic role of the VOCs was validated through Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. The area below the curve and the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity values were also evaluated., Results: The data showed great differences between female cancer and healthy patients groups; most of these VOCs belonging to the alkanes chemical classes. A group of VOCs were identified as common among CC patients, while others VOCs for healthy females. The ROC curve showed an optimal reach to diagnosis (89%), returning a 93% rate for sensitivity and specificity, indicating the VOCs identified in the samples could differentiate cancer patients from healthy females., Conclusions: In summary, we have detected and identified specific VOCs from healthy women that are not present in CC-affected females and VOCs specific of CC-affected women. We are strengthening our findings to aid in the detection of VOCs that are potential biomarkers for cervical tumors., (Copyright © 2018 IMSS. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background and Objetive: Human papilloma virus (HPV) is one of the main risk factors associated with the development of cervical cancer and its precursor lesions. It has been reported that HPV16 and 18 types cover approximately 70% of cervical cancer worldwide; however, significant variation in percentages of HPV infections could be related to specific populations., Materials and Methods: Purified DNA of 67 cervical samples were analyzed by Linear Array® HPV genotyping kit. These analyzed samples correspond to 19 cervical tumors, 15 high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, 20 low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and 13 cervical samples without injury were studied, all of them previously diagnosed., Results: In general, 16 different HPV types were found with differences in their frequencies, cervical invasive cancer being the richest in HPV sequences, followed by the low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and then high-grade lesions. HPV16 was the most frequently distributed type in neoplastic lesions of the cervix, followed by the HPV52, suggesting viral type variability, probably associated to the geographical region studied., Conclusions: The results could indicate variability in HPV presence in Mexico, underlining the important role for HPV52 among others in the Mexican population. This would also potentially have an impact on the current anti-HPV vaccination schemes., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Background and Aims: Krüppel Like Factors (KLF) refers to a family of seventeen members of transcription factors. Involved in several cellular processes. As other cancer types, Cervical Cancer (CC) presents molecular deregulations in transcription factors, but especially Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) sequences. Here in this work we analyzed the mRNA expression of all KLF family members in CC-derived cell lines and CC tissues., Methods: The cell lines used were HeLa, INBL, RoVa, C4-I, Ms751, ViPa, CaLo, SiHa, CaSki, C33a and ViBo and the non-tumorigenic HaCaT. mRNA expression was analyzed by means of expression microarray and RT-PCR, and KLF5 protein by immunofluorescence., Results: The cell lines were grouped according to HPV genotype as HPV16, HPV18 positive or HPV negative cells. Heterogeneous expression was observed among the cell lines. Despite the heterogeneous expression profile, KLF3, -5, -12, -15 and -16 transcripts were present in all cell lines, KLF4 and -10 which were not expressed in CaSki; KLF11 and 13 were not expressed by Vipa and C4-I, and KLF7 was not expressed by C4-I and Rova. The CC tissue analysis shows expression of most of the KLF members, such as KLF5. KLF5 immunosignal was positive in the three cell lines analyzed., Conclusions: We suggest that KLF expression could not be related to HPV presence/genotype, at least at transcriptional level, and the expression of KLF family members may be necessary in the biology of the CC cells., (Copyright © 2017 IMSS. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Cervical Cancer (CC) has become a public health concern of alarming proportions in many developing countries such as Mexico, particularly in low income sectors and marginalized regions. As such, an early detection is a key medical factor in improving not only their population's quality of life but also its life expectancy. Interestingly, there has been an increase in the number of reports describing successful attempts at detecting cancer cells in human tissues or fluids using trained (sniffer) dogs. The great odor detection threshold exhibited by dogs is not unheard of. However, this represented a potential opportunity to develop an affordable, accessible, and non-invasive method for detection of CC., Methods: Using clicker training, a male beagle was trained to recognize CC odor. During training, fresh CC biopsies were used as a reference point. Other samples used included cervical smears on glass slides and medical surgical bandages used as intimate sanitary pads by CC patients. A double-blind procedure was exercised when testing the beagle's ability to discriminate CC from control samples., Results: The beagle was proven able to detect CC-specific volatile organic compounds (VOC) contained in both fresh cervical smear samples and adsorbent material samples. Beagle's success rate at detecting and discriminating CC and non-CC odors, as indicated by specificity and sensitivity values recorded during the experiment, stood at an overall high (>90%). CC-related VOC in adsorbent materials were detectable after only eight hours of use by CC patients., Conclusion: Present data suggests different applications for VOC from the uterine cervix to be used in the detection and diagnosis of CC. Furthermore, data supports the use of trained dogs as a viable, affordable, non-invasive and, therefore, highly relevant alternative method for detection of CC lesions. Additional benefits of this method include its quick turnaround time and ease of use while remaining highly accurate and robust.

Background: In Mexico, breast cancer (BCa) is in first place regarding cancer mortality and has been established as a priority health issue. The incidence of metastasis from BCa is very high and presents as the principal mortality factor among women younger than 40 years of age. OBJECTIVE. To determine any associations between clinicopathological characteristics and metastasis in Mexican women under 40 years of age. Methods: During the 2010–2015 period, a total of 180 female BCa cases seen at the Navy General High Specialty Hospital, SEMAR, in Mexico City; we collected information on 20 patients with BCa younger than 40 years of age. Statistical analyses were conducted using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov, Students t, Fisher, Chi square, and Mantel–Haenszel tests. Results: The prevalence of women with BCa younger than the age of 40 years during the 2010–2015 period was 13.3%. We found a high frequency of obesity in of these cases (>75%); 100% of obese patients with a history of smoking presented with metastasis (p <0.05). In addition, the hormone phenotype was important; HER2-positive cases were 12 times more likely tto exhibit metastasis (p <0.05), while expression of estrogen and progesterone receptors appeared to be protective. Diabetes mellitus in combination with smoking was also a risk factor for development of metastasis (p <0.05). Conclusion: In this study, we obtained essential data regarding risk of metastasis in young breast cancer cases which could be useful for predicting disease evolution and treatment response., (Creative Commons Attribution License)

Cervical cancer (CC) is a multifactorial disease associated to genetic, environmental and epigenetic factors, being the infection by human papillomavirus the main etiologic agent. Additionally, the alteration in the expression of transcription factors has been considered of importance for the development of this tumor. HOX genes encode a group of transcription factors involved in cellular proliferation and differentiation processes during the development of embryonic structures in vertebrates; their aberrant expression is associated with tumorigenesis and metastasis. A range of evidence suggests a role for HOX genes in the development of cervical neoplastic cell. Studies in CC cell lines, primary tumors and premalignant lesions have suggested the involvement of HOXA1, HOXC5, C6, C8 and C10, HOXD9 and HOXD13 in the process of cervical carcinogenesis. Also, the de novo expression of genes HOXB2, B4, B13 and HOXC11-C13 appears to be involved in the process of malignant transformation of cervical epithelial cell. These data would allow to open a field in search of new molecular markers in cervical cancer and the development of new therapeutic strategies for this malignancy.

Recently, technological advances have greatly increased, generating the development of nanotechnology, which is responsible for the design of structures and materials in the nanometer scale. This creates one of the most important cutting-edge sciences, integrating physics, chemistry, engineering and biology sciences. Specifically the integration with biology results in a new science called nanobiotechnology, specifically nanomedicine, which has the goal of mainly looking for more precise molecular diagnostic and prognostic processes, as well as the new design of drugs in the personalized medicine field. On the other hand, at molecular level in medical research, the nanoparticles are most commonly used as tools. Molecular diagnostics uses gold nanoparticles, paramagnetic nanoparticles and quantum dots, which can be used for the diagnosis and treatment of several diseases, including cancer. Quantum dots are the most promising tools for diagnosis and therapy in cancer research.