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Our principal purpose here is to clarify the nature of trade relations between the Near East and the eastern regions of Africa and, in particular, the Horn of Africa. Indeed, it seems evident that these ties were particularly strong and that they led to commercial relations between the Roman merchants and the populations who inhabited those regions. In particular, the areas of central-eastern Africa constituted the most important point of contact between the West and the East. They thus became bases of primary importance for the trade routes for products of all kinds (we are talking about food products as well as precious fabrics) with the Indies., Il contributo vuole presentare quali fossero le relazioni commerciali tra il vicino Oriente e le regioni orientali dell’Africa e, in modo precipuo, del Corno d’Africa. Si tratta di legami particolarmente forti che, in modo diremmo inevitabile, portarono a rapporti commerciali tra mercanti romani e quelle popolazioni che abitavano le succitate regioni. Sono proprio le zone dell’Africa centro orientale ad essere quel punto di contatto tra l’Occidente e l’Oriente al punto che essi divennero basi di importanza primaria per le vie di scambio di prodotti di qualsivoglia genere (si parla di prodotti alimentari come di tessuti preziosi) con le Indie., Cette contribution vise à présenter quelles étaient les relations commerciales entre le Proche-Orient et les régions orientales de l’Afrique et, en particulier, la Corne de l’Afrique. Il s’agit de liens particulièrement forts qui, inévitablement pourrait-on dire, ont conduit à des relations commerciales entre les marchands romains et les populations vivant dans ces régions. Ce sont précisément les régions d’Afrique centrale et orientale qui ont été le point de contact entre l’Occident et l’Orient, au point de devenir des bases de première importance pour les routes par lesquelles transitaient des produits de toutes sortes (des denrées alimentaires autant que des tissus précieux) avec les Indes., Montecchio Luca. I Romani nel Corno d’Africa. Controllo delle vie marittime verso terre lontane e incognite.. In: Dialogues d'histoire ancienne, vol. 48, n°1, 2022. pp. 177-216.

Past scholarship on Roman gems has primarily focused on the style and iconography of engraved gems. Recent scholarship by Hélène Guiraud on provenanced gems from Gaul (1988/2008), and by Ian Marshman on provenanced gems from Roman Britain (2016), have set forth methodological guides by which a collection of gems can be collated and assessed from a quantitative perspective, studying their type, style, and iconography. This thesis builds upon the precedent established through their work by moving beyond the limits of a single Roman province, and instead cataloguing and assessing Roman gems from across the Roman Empire. The catalogue of this thesis totals 10,726 pieces from 318 collections, representing the largest assemblage of Roman gems to date. This dataset is not meant to be a complete cataloguing of Roman gems from this period, but instead of a size that mitigates any identification and misclassifications that can be common in the study of ancient gems. Probabilistic chronological distribution and a quantitative methodology have here been employed to identify broad chronological, geographic, and typological trends in Roman gem use from the 1st century BC to the 4th century AD. The first chapter sets forth the research questions that will be asked and answered of each dataset, as well as identifying the biases and challenges inherent to the material. The second chapter presents the types of gems, their characteristics, and mineralogical sources, followed by an analysis of Indo-Roman maritime and overland trading routes. The third, fourth, and fifth chapters are quantitative in their focus, addressing increasingly refined datasets of Roman gems. The third chapter is dedicated to the empire-wide dataset, first broadly looking at all jewellery types, and then focusing on engraved gems, blank gems, and finger rings. The fourth chapter looks to material from Roman sites and provinces focusing on Gaul, Britain, and Egypt, as well as Carnuntum, Caesarea Maritima, Xanten, and Aquileia. The fifth chapter catalogues the gems from Roman coin hoards using data from The Oxford Roman Economy Project’s Coin Hoards of the Roman Empire as its foundation. The quantitative conclusions derived from the refined datasets in chapters three, four, and five present probabilistically secure evidence of chronological, geographic, and typological trends in gem usage. The sixth and final chapter of the thesis looks to visual representations of gems and jewellery on Pompeian frescoes and funerary portraits from the Fayum and Palmyra, focusing specifically on how these carved and painted renditions relate to what is observed in the archaeological record. The quantitative conclusions presented here represent the first for gems from across the Roman Empire. Where past scholarship has addressed Roman gems and jewellery in broad impressionistic tones, this thesis distinguishes itself by presenting quantitative evidence for commonness, rarity, and use. It considers Roman gems from a material perspective, assessing the geographic and chronological patterns of use through probabilistic distribution and quantitative analysis. Using this methodology gems become indicators of wealth, the safety of Rome’s trading routes, and the health of the Roman economy.

El presente trabajo da a conocer una singular marca en griego sobre un fragmento de vidrio, perteneciente seguramente al fondo de una botella, recuperado en las excavaciones arqueológicas en curso en la ciudad romana de Los Bañales, en el valle del Ebro. Tras revisar y ordenar los usos del vidrio como soporte epigráfico en el mundo romano, se relaciona el texto con el posible nombre de alguno de los uitrarii atestiguados en el Mediterráneo y se propone, también, con criterios paleográficos y arqueológicos, una datación para el documento. Aquest treball dona a conèixer una singular marca en grec sobre un fragment de vidre, pertanyent segurament al fons d’una ampolla, recuperat a les excavacions arqueològiques en curs a la ciutat romana de Los Bañales, a la vall de l’Ebre. Després de revisar i ordenar els usos del vidre com a suport epigràfic al món romà, es relaciona el text amb el possible nom d’algun delsuitrarii testificats a la Mediterrània i es proposa, també, amb criteris paleogràfics i arqueològics, una datació per al document. This paper presents a very singular Greek mark on a piece of glass, probably from the base of a bottle, found as a result of the archaeological excavations currently underway in the Roman city of Los Bañales, in the Ebro valley (Spain). After a general review of the application and purpose of Roman epigraphy in the case of glass vessels, it is argued that the inscribed mark probably refers to the name of one of the uitrarii attested in the Mediterranean. On the basis of palaeographical and archaeological criteria, a chronology for the piece is also offered.

Here we present the epigraphic novelties on olive oil amphorae of the Dressel 20 typology found in the Roman city of Sorviodurum (Straubing, Germany). These marks are related to the settlement of auxiliary units in a chronology that goes from Flavian period to the end of the 3rd century. We also include the inscriptions already published to provide an overview of the city through all the material of this typology., Presentamos aquí las novedades epigráficas sobre ánforas de aceite de oliva de la tipología Dressel 20 encontradas en la ciudad romana de Sorviodurum (Straubing, Alemania). Estas marcas se relacionan con el asentamiento de unidades auxiliares en una cronología que va desde época flavia hasta finales del s. III. Incluimos también los epígrafes ya publicados para ofrecer una visión de conjunto de la ciudad mediante todo el material de esta tipología.

For centuries, there has been a steady and profitable commerce between the Roman Empire and India. One of the most striking evidence of such trade are the Roman coins found in India over the last two centuries. This body of evidence has always used to try to guess the scale and the fluctuations of the Roman exports to the East. Nevertheless, such attempts have been so far fruitless, because they mostly failed to understand the real nature of this sort of evidence. This paper aims to revise the available evidence to demonstrate, firstly, that the phenomenon of the Roman coins in India cannot be properly understood without a proper theoretical economic framework to interpret it. From this point of view, the analytical tools of both New Institutional Economics (NIE) and asymmetric information theory are essential. Secondly, this paper argues that Roman coins were only exported to India when this was profitable. The reason that drove Roman merchants to trade Roman currency in India was the different ratio between silver and gold in the two regions of the Ancient World. Because of this difference, there were moments in which trading coins was more profitable than it would have been inside the Empire. This would represent a case for arbitrage. A combination of the evidence of the Periplus Maris Erythreai and of some Indian inscriptions allow us to shed light on a sophisticated financial process that was part of the international business between the Roman Empire and India, and, in more general terms, on the features of the Roman economic system.

We show that the creation of the first integrated pan-European transport network during Roman times influences economic integration over two millennia. Drawing on spatially highly disaggregated data on excavated Roman ceramics, we document that interregional trade was strongly influenced by connectivity within the network. Today, these connectivity differentials continue to influence cross-regional firm investment behaviour. Continuity is largely explained by selective infrastructure routing and cultural integration due to bilateral convergence in preferences and values. Both plausibly arise from network-induced history of repeated socio-economic interaction. We show that our results are Roman-connectivity specific and do not reflect pre-existing patterns of exchange.

O espaço da antiga Alcáçova Islâmica do Castelo de Lisboa tem fornecido dados de extrema importância para o conhecimento dos momentos mais recuados da presença romana no Vale do Tejo. Nesse âmbito, têm‑se destacado os estudos sobre os contentores anfóricos. Neste artigo apresenta‑se a análise das ânforas romanas provenientes de duas intervenções arqueológicas realizadas naquela área da cidade: o Largo de Santa Cruz do Castelo e o Pátio José Pedreira. Com o estudo destes dois conjuntos anfóricos, procura‑se reajustar e afinar o perfil de importação e consumo de géneros alimentares transportados em ânforas estabelecido para o alto do Morro do Castelo. Os dados destas amostras aportam algumas novidades importantes, de que se destaca a documentação da importação de vinho proveniente do Mediterrâneo oriental., The area of the ancient Islamic citadel of Lisbon Castle has provided extremely important data for the knowledge of the earliest moments of the Roman presence in the Tagus Valley. In this context, studies on amphorae containers have stood out. In this paper we present the analysis of the Roman amphorae from two archaeological interventions carried out in that area of the city: Largo de Santa Cruz do Castelo and Pátio José Pedreira. With the study of these two amphorae ensembles, we seek to readjust and improve the profile of importation and consumption of foodstuffs transported in amphorae established for the top of the Castle hill. The data from these samples provide some important new information, of which the documentation of wine imports from the eastern Mediterranean is noteworthy.

La producción de ánforas con características morfológicas totalmente romanas en el occidente de la Península ha sido documentada desde el tercer cuarto del siglo I a.C., es decir, desde los últimos momentos de la República. Sin embargo, y a pesar del importante desarrollo que su estudio ha experimentado en los últimos quince años, el conocimiento que tenemos actualmente sobre los contenedores producidos entre esa fase y el tercer cuarto del siglo I d.C. todavía es bastante reducido. El objetivo de este estudio es presentar un conjunto significativo de nuevos datos de la ciudad romana de Lisboa, que es, por el momento, el principal centro de consumo de estas producciones. Enmarcado en el estado actual de la investigación y en las principales problemáticas subyacentes a este tema, se busca establecer las posibles lecturas sobre la diacronía de producción y circulación de estas ánforas, así como su significado en el contexto del consumo de alimentos transportados en contenedores anfóricos en Olisipo., The production of amphorae with fully Roman morphologic characteristics in the western Peninsula started in the third quarter of the 1st c. B.C., that is, in the final moments of the Republic. However, despite the important development of its study over the last fifteen years, the knowledge currently held on containers produced between that period and the third quarter of the 1st c. A.D. is still quite limited. This study aims to present a significant set of new data from the Roman city of Olisipo, which represents, for the time being, the main consumption centre of these amphoric productions. Framed in the current state of research and in the main issues underlying this theme, we seek to establish the possible readings about the production and circulation chronology of these amphorae, as well as their meaning in the context of the consumption of foodstuffs transported in amphoric containers in the Roman city of Lisbon.

Las investigaciones arqueológicas desarrolladas en distintos campos de la denominada “Arqueología de la Producción”, nos han llevado a un cambio de paradigma en los estudios de la economía en el mundo antiguo. No es posible contemplar el transporte de sustancias líquidas y semilíquidas sólo a partir de las ánforas “canónicas”. Cada vez resulta más evidente que el mundo romano empleo otros tipos de recipientes, tanto cerámicos (ánforas de fondo plano), como perecederos (barriles, odres), para cubrir todos los segmentos del proceso de comercialización, desde el envasado hasta la redistribución en el ámbito de los centros de consumo. Los registros estratigráficos del campamento romano de León nos permiten algunas reflexiones a este respecto. The archaeological research which has developed in different fields of the so-called “archaeology of production”, has led us to a new crossroad in the framework of the study of economics in the ancient world. This paradigm shift has made it difficult to contemplate the transport of liquid and semi-liquid substances purely in terms of “canonical” amphorae. It is becoming increasingly evident that the Roman world used other types of containers as well, both ceramic (flat-bottomed amphorae) and perishable (wineskins and barrels), to cover all segments of the marketing process, from packaging to redistribution in the area of consumption centers. The archaeological records of the Roman military camp at ancient León allow us some considerations on this topic.

El estudio del material situado en los campamentos romanos del limes germano han constituido un incomparable indicador de los cambios comerciales que se van produciendo en el imperio romano, en especial por los contextos cronológicamente acotados que proporcionan. Se presenta un estudio cualitativo y cuantitativo de las importaciones anfóricas de origen itálico recogidas en la Colonia Ulpia Traiana (Xanten). Entre otros aspectos se se constatan las profundas transformaciones que sufre la organización productiva itálica a partir de época augustea y a lo largo del siglo I d. C., con una drástica caída de las importaciones vinarias itálicas. Con todo, aunque en menor cantidad, éstas siguieron presentes en Xanten al menos, hasta finales del siglo II-III d. C. Proyectos: HAR2015-64601-C3-2-R, HAR2015-65168-P, HAR2015-68554-P y GRE-03

This study analyzes Roman Coarse Wares from the city of Cumae (Naples, Campania), over an extended period, from the II century B.C. to the abandonment of the site in the late Antiquity. After examining the available data on pottery production and circulation in this area of the bay of Naples, the unpublished assemblages from the forum are analysed. These contexts were found during the excavations carried out by the Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, in the framework of the Kyme Project, in which two Neapolitan universities and the Centre Jean Bérard (CNRS) are involved to promote the research and the valorisation of the ancient city. New data sets collected by these different teams highlight the role of Cumae in pottery production. Some coarse wares produced in Cumae were widely traded across the entire Roman Empire, in particular the so called Pompeian Red Ware (ceramica a vernice rossa interna, céramique à engobe rouge pompéien or Pompejanisch-rote Platte). The characteristics of the site and of the coarse ware assemblages led to the adoption of a classification system fundamentally different from those used in studies on Coarse Wares made in Campania until now. Every type of pottery is analytically described and illustrated, with profile drawings and, in most cases, with the support of data provided by thin-section study. The examination of Coarse Wares discovered in the excavations of the forum of Cumae and the re-examination of available documentation about Coarse Wares finds from the city and elsewhere, leads to review our previous knowledge about the chronology of each type and production, confirming or modifying them. The collected documentation allows us to reconstruct the framework of Coarse Wares production in Cumae. Furthermore, the study of imported Coarse Wares from the forum of Cumae provided new clues for reconstructing trade evolutions in the city and in the Phlegraean Fields, strongly influenced by the vicinity of the port of Puteoli, gateway of the Roman provinces of Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean. Examining forms evolutions and their percentage of the local and imported production through centuries, we observe changes in trade and in individuals habits and how everyday objects give insights on social and economical changes at Cumae and in the Phlegraean Fields during the Early Roman Empire and the late Antiquity., Cette étude analyse les céramiques communes romaines provenant de la cité de Cumes (Naples, Campanie) sur un arc temporel très étendu, depuis le IIe siècle av. J.-C. jusqu’à l’abandon du site durant l’Antiquité tardive. Après avoir examiné les données disponibles sur la production et la circulation des céramiques dans cette région de la baie de Naples, on analyse les mobiliers inédits des fouilles dans le forum, conduites par l’Università degli Studi di Napoli « Federico II », dans le cadre du projet Kyme, un programme de recherche et de mise en valeur des vestiges de la ville antique avec la participation de deux universités napolitaines et du Centre Jean Bérard (CNRS). Les données recueillies sur le site par les diverses équipes clarifient le rôle de Cumes comme centre de production céramique. Certaines céramiques communes fabriquées par les potiers de la ville connaissent une très large diffusion et sont parmi les productions les mieux attestées dans tout l’Empire romain: c’est le cas de la céramique dite à engobe rouge pompéien (ceramica a vernice rossa interna, Pompeian Red Ware o Pompejanisch-rote Platte). Les caractéristiques spécifiques du site et de l’assemblage de céramique commune étudié ont encouragé à adopter pour ce travail un système de classification différent de celui utilisé pour les productions communes de la Campanie jusqu'à présent. Chaque type est illustré analytiquement, avec le support d’une large documentation graphique et, dans la plupart des cas, des données fournies par l’étude des lames minces. L’examen des mobiliers provenant des fouilles du forum de Cumes et le réexamen des vases attestés dans la ville et en dehors du site, ont permis la révision des connaissances antérieures sur la production et la chronologie des types, en les confirmant ou en les modifiant. La documentation recueillie permet de dégager le cadre complexe de la production de céramique commune à Cumes. En outre, l’étude des importations a fourni nouveaux éléments sur les échanges commerciaux atteignant le site et la région phlégréenne, très influencés par la présence du port de Puteoli, porte de Rome sur les provinces de l’Afrique e de l’Orient. En examinant les variations du répertoire des formes représentées et les pourcentages des céramiques communes locales par rapport aux autres productions de l’Empire au cours des siècles, il a été possible d’observer des changements dans les flux commerciaux et dans les habitudes des individus. Il s’agit d’élever le regard des objets quotidiens pour atteindre les changements sociaux et économiques intéressant le site et le Champs Phlégréens entre le Haut Empire et l’Antiquité tardive.

El estudio de las ánforas, el principal contenedor utilizado para el transporte de alimentos de larga distancia en la Antigüedad, constituye un elemento de primer orden para determinar el rango jerárquico de un determinado puerto y el alcance de sus áreas de influencia. En el presente trabajo pretendemos abordar su potencialidad para conocer también las rutas que comunicaban determinadas áreas de interior con su puerto de salida y entrada de mercancías, a partir de un caso concreto de estudio. El río Guadalquivir, parece sin lugar a dudas, la principal vía de salida de los metales obtenidos en Sierra Morena a partir de época de Augusto, cuando Estrabón (III, 2, 3), menciona que se realizan diversas tareas de acondicionamiento que permitieron ampliar el tramo que se podría remontar río arriba, además de conseguir realizarlo con embarcaciones de mayor tamaño. Se deduce por tanto, que la navegabilidad de este río era más reducida en el periodo republicano, por lo que cabe plantearse cuál era la vía de salida preferente de estos metales en esa fase. Partiendo de esta premisa y del análisis comparativo de diferentes conjuntos anfóricos de Hispania Ulterior y apoyándonos en fuentes numismáticas y en la información conocida sobre los antiguos caminos de este territorio, exploramos las evidencias que apuntan a que durante el periodo republicano la cuenca minera de Sierra Morena, al menos en el área cordobesa, se abasteció de manera preferente a partir de la ruta terrestre que conectaba esta zona con Malaca. El presente trabajo se ha realizado dentro de los proyectos «Amphorae ex Hispania: paisajes de producción y consumo» (HAR2011-28244) y «Muerte y ritual funerario en Baelo Claudia 2012-2017» (SIDPH/DI).

In this paper, we propose a study about social and economic promotion mechanisms among salted fish traders in Roman Baetica during the Early Empire, independently of their social origin. Items obtained by epigraphy (either stone tablets or amphorae) are the fundamental basis for evidence as to their gradual moving towards social elites from Rome, even to the detriment of their own original communities.Planteamos un estudio centrado en los mecanismos de promoción socio-económica que experimentaron los comerciantes de salazón en la Bética romana durante el Alto Imperio, al margen de su propio origen social. Los testimonios de la epigrafía (lapidaria y anfórica) constituyen la base fundamental sobre la que asentar las evidencias de su paulatina aproximación a las elites sociales de Roma, en perjuicio de sus propias comunidades de origen.

This paper presents an overview of the market concept and investigates the features that characterize the economy of the Roman Empire. The agricultural production leadership and importance in the Late Antiquity is asserted, unveiling the scarce mercantile spirit among the wealthy landowners. Este trabajo presenta una síntesis del concepto de mercado e indaga en los rasgos que caracterizan la economía del Imperio romano. En él se afirma la consistencia y protagonismo de la producción agrícola en los siglos de la antigüedad tardía y se evidencia el escaso espíritu mercantil de los ricos propietarios de tierras.

Planteamos un estudio centrado en los mecanismos de promoción socio-económica que experimentaron los comerciantes de salazón en la Bética romana durante el Alto Imperio, al margen de su propio origen social. Los testimonios de la epigrafía (lapidaria y anfórica) constituyen la base fundamental sobre la que asentar las evidencias de su paulatina aproximación a las elites sociales de Roma, en perjuicio de sus propias comunidades de origen. In this paper, we propose a study about social and economic promotion mechanisms among salted fish traders in Roman Baetica during the Early Empire, independently of their social origin. Items obtained by epigraphy (either stone tablets or amphorae) are the fundamental basis for evidence as to their gradual moving towards social elites from Rome, even to the detriment of their own original communities.

The Iron Age hillfort of Montealegre, in the Atlantic coast of Galicia (NW Spain), has yielded an interesting array of Mediterranean imports during the last excavations (2003-2004). These imports span mainly from the mid-2nd c. BC to the early 1st c. AD. The late Punic and early Roman trade in the northwest of Iberia was until now scarcely known, unlike the Julio- Claudian commercial relations. The artefacts that made their way to this end of the world include late Punic (Mañá C2b), Iberian (Pellicer D) and Italic (Dressel 1) amphorae, kalathoi from Catalonia, and common ware, among other things. The Julio-Claudian period is also well represented, especially by numerous amphorae (Dressel 2/4, Haltern 70, Dressel 7/11). The variety and quantity of imports from the mid-2nd c. BC onwards proves the strong integration of the Galician coast in the Mediterranean network before the Roman conquest of the area., El castro de Montealegre, en la costa de Galicia, ha proporcionado en recientes excavaciones un interesante conjunto de importaciones mediterráneas, de mediados del siglo II a.C. a inicios del siglo I d.C. principalmente. El comercio tardopúnico y romano preaugusteo en el noroeste ibérico era hasta hace poco escasamente conocido, frente a las relaciones comerciales del período julio-claudio. Los objetos que llegaron a este finis térrea incluyen ánforas tardopúnicas (Mañá C2b), ibéricas (Pellicer D) e itálicas (Dressel 1), kalathoi de Cataluña y cerámica común, entre otras cosas. El período julio-claudio está asimismo bien representado por numerosas ánforas, fundamentalmente de la Bética (Dressel 2/4, Haltern 70, Dressel 7/11). La variedad y cantidad de importaciones desde mediados del siglo II a.C. en adelante demuestra la gran integración de la costa galaica en las redes mediterráneas desde antes de la conquista romana.

[ES] El castro de Montealegre, en la costa de Galicia, ha proporcionado en recientes excavaciones un interesante conjunto de importaciones mediterráneas, de mediados del siglo II a. C. a inicios del siglo I d. C. principalmente. El comercio era hasta hace poco escasamente conocido, frente a las relacioines comerciales del período julio-claudio. Los objetos que llegaron a este finis terrae incluyen ánforas tardopúnicas (Mañá C2b), ibéricas (Pellicer D) e itálicas (Dressel 1), cálatos de Cataluña y cerámica común, entre otras cosas. El período julio-claudio está asimismo bien representado por numerosas ánforas, fundamentalmente de la Bética (Dressel 2/4, Haltern 70, Dressel 7/11). La variedad y cantidad de importaciones desde mediados del siglo II a. C. en adelante demuestra la gran integración de la costa galaica en las redes mediterráneas desde antes de la conquista romana., [EN] The Iron Age hillfort of Montealegre, in the Atlantic coast of Galicia (NW Spain), has yielded an interesting array of Mediterranean imports during the last excavations (2003-2004). These imports span mainly from the mid-2nd c. BC to the early 1st c. AD. The late Punic and early Roman trade in the northwest of Iberia was until now scarcely known, unlike the Julio-Claudian commercial relations. The artefacts that made their way to this end of the world include late Punic (Mañá C2b), Iberian (Pellicer D) and Italic (Dressel 1) amphorae, kalathoi from Catalonia, and common ware, among other things. The Julio-Claudian period is also well represented, especially by numerous amphorae Dressel 2/4, Haltern 70, Dressel 7/11). The variety and quantity of imports from the mid-2nd c. BC onwards proves the strong integration of the Galician coast in the Mediterranean network before the Roman conquest of the area.