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In this study, alkali modified coal fly ash (MFA) and unmodified coal fly ash (unMFA) were applied, as pit latrine additives to eliminate faecal coliforms from synthetic faeces (SF), which were used as a proxy for real pit latrine waste. The X-ray diffractogram spectrum showed that mullite and quartz were converted into hydroxysilicate. Two separate studies were run over a period of seven weeks. The first study had the treatment combinations of SF: MFA, SF: unMFA, SF: MFA: synthetic greywater (SGW), SF: unMFA: SGW, SF: MFA: synthetic urine (SU), SF: unMFA: SU and SF (as a control) while the second study consisted of the combinations of SF: MFA, SF: unMFA, SF: MFA: lime (6g), SF: unMFA: lime (12g), SF: MFA: lime (24g), SF: unMFA: lime (50g) respectively. The pH in both studies ranged between 7.07 and 12.38. The average initial concentrations of faecal coliforms from each of the experimental treatments ranged from 9.96 x 106 to 1.06 x107 ± 2 x106 cfu/g of dry weight on the first day of the experiment. However, they were removed completely after 7 days with no regrowth for a period of 7 weeks indicating removal of faecal coliforms to level below the detection limits of the enumeration technique used. On the first study on the fourth week, faecal coliforms reappeared in the pit latrine treatment SF: MFA: SU (5.60 x 105 ± 8.66 x 105 cfu/g dry weight) followed by SF: MFA (1.78 x 105 ± 2.89 x 105 cfu/g dry weight) but thereafter could not be detected (detection limit was 545 cfu/ g dry weight of SF) for the remainder of the study. The concentration of chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium, phosphate ranged between 6.35 x102 ± 1.26x102 – 22.11 x102, 0.116±0.091 – 21.38 x102 ± 1.77x102 and 1.35x102 ±0.348 – 31.18x102 ±0.348 mg/g of dry weight respectively while nitrate concentration was zero. In conclusion, both studies showed that MFA and unMFA can be used as pit latrine additives for the removal of pathogenic microorganisms, however, the contents of the pit latrine might have an influence on how fast and effective the additive might be as shown in the first study where SU or SGW were introduced.

Human actions are ambivalent in nature and this in turn has an impact on all components of socio-ecological systems. Their ambivalence results from the fact that human actions have both positive and negative outcomes and properties, which occur and manifest concurrently in the ontological realm of human existence. In terms of space–time, both micro-geography and macro-geography of human existence are intertwined during the COVID-19 pandemic, thus affecting pre- and post-pandemic space–time continuum. The utilitarian qubit can be used to describe the nature of human existence, i.e., Homo sapiens has always been experiencing a state of existence where pain and pleasure are co-extensive. In this state, it is impossible to establish to what extent pain, and to what extent pleasure, will have a definitive impact on our status as individuals and humanity as a species. In this article, the authors explore how the record of an individual’s life before and after the COVID-19 pandemic has been impacted by the wellbeing and actions of other humans and prior to one’s existence. Drawing on the utilitarian qubit, the COVID-19 pandemic, and its impacts on the members of Homo sapiens, can be understood as a partial outcome of the cumulative actions of humanity on the biosphere and other elements of the global ecosystem (the Age of the Anthropocene). We argue that this paper is also useful to foster disaster preparedness and resilience in the pandemic and post-pandemic era, at micro- and macro-geographical interfaces of human existence in the 21st century. The existence of individual members of Homo sapiens and humanity as a species is unfolding at the boundary between two levels: fundamental reality and situational reality. The result is the historical accumulation and ontological interconnectedness of humanity’s activities with one’s own actions. Pain and pleasure resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic and the Age of Anthropocene, as well as the right and wrong consequences of humanity’s actions, are posited here to be symptoms of the Anthropocenic (phase of) epidemiological transition.

The current paper provides a review and meta-analysis of the practical implications of disaster risk management related to the ventilated improved latrines in South Africa. This technology is evaluated through its legacy and novel challenges of disaster risk reduction. In the current article, the methodology adopted was a literature review and meta-analyses. The results indicate that the in-situ treatment and breakdown of faecal sludge in the ventilated improved pit latrines is not always taking place and that anaerobic digestion might not always be feasible. New strategies are proposed to manage the sanitation-related risks in South Africa by specifying more exact dimensions for the newly built ventilated improved pit latrines by suggesting the use of novel sanitation additives such as fly ash to enhance on-site and in situ treatment, as well as ex situ treatment of the pit latrine faecal sludge. Regular maintenance can lead to prevention of the dysfunctional character of the ventilated improved pit latrines as a functional sanitation technology and a user-friendly hygiene barrier to the spread of sanitation/WASH-related epidemics or infectious diseases. The implementation of the novel strategies should be enhanced by the application of the (Environmental) Technology Assessment in sanitation service delivery in South Africa.

A pandemic, by definition, involves the whole world being impacted by a common threat and calls for a united response. A highly virulent pathogen, the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has affected every facet of modern life. The virus has revealed the world’s underlying inherent inequities, such as economic and food insecurity and availability of and access to a functional healthcare system, not to mention preparedness of nations to manage a coordinated pandemic response. For these reasons, Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) represents an unprecedented challenge to economies, healthcare systems, and nations alike. The closing of international and internal borders, physical distancing, and the resulting decrease in travel and trade have led countries to become insular geographically, socially, and economically. Somewhat ironically, this necessitates an increased need for greater collaboration between countries and other stakeholders to control the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and better manage the global crisis upon us, so as to mitigate the long-term sequelae of this pandemic.

Personal hygiene and access to potable water, which is safe for human consumption, are critical to containing the COVID19 pandemic. Here monitoring results are reported for microbial quality of water samples from the municipal supply in Makana Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Access of the human population to sufficient volumes of potable water of required (microbial) quality has been a problem in this local municipality. Samples were taken just before and during 30 days of the strictest phase of the nation-wide lockdown, related to COVID19 in South Africa. Aim of this short communication was to perform the water quality testing with limited to no access to laboratory facilities and using the principles of citizen science. The H2S test kit was used as the basis for the microbial testing, while a cell phone app was used for the temperature monitoring. Five H2S test kit were used per sampling at the author’s house and the kits was developed for the microbial water quality assessment in isolated settings such as those for the lockdown. During the study, the ambient temperature ranged from 17 to 29 °C, with decreases below 18 °C occurring on three out of 12 sampling occasions. Thus the results of the H2S test kit might have been slightly influenced by the fluctuations of the ambient temperature. On 8 sampling occasions between 1 and 4 H2S test kits were positive for faecal contamination. Three samples or 25 % were free of faecal contamination. One sample had all five H2S test kits were positive for faecal contamination. Results of statistical testing indicated that potable water in Makana Local Municipality was probably microbially contaminated at the author’s household on an intermittent basis. Ongoing monitoring of microbial drinking water quality is necessary and continuing at the sampled location.

During the 2017-2018 listeriosis outbreak in South Africa (SA), the total number of cases reached 1,060. In this study, the disaster management response to the 2017-2018 South Africa listeriosis outbreak is analyzed. The hazard was in part the contamination of a brand of a ready-to-eat (RTE) “polony” with a strain of Listeria monocytogenes ST6. The initial phase of the 2017-2018 listeriosis outbreak was characterized by a rapid increase in the number of detected human cases. The listeriosis outbreak was officially proclaimed in December 2017, resulting in listeriosis being added to the list of notifiable diseases in SA. The delay between onset and proclamation was a result of the difficulty in identification of the actual number of cases of listeriosis in the country. The response to the disaster included the coordination of the National Department of Health, the National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD), businesses/producers of the contaminated brand of RTE products, and the public. Some of these activities led to the removal of the contaminated products from the retail sector in March 2018, resulting in a decrease in the number of cases found in SA. In response to the outbreak, the National Department of Health formed a multisector incidence response team and implemented the Emergency Response Plan. Impacts of future listeriosis outbreaks could be mitigated by the adoption of international listeriosis guidelines such as the WHO/FAO and FDA. Practical steps in this context should include setting a limit of L. monocytogenes in RTE products. WHO/FAO and FDA listeriosis policies which are described “zero tolerance” where a limit of < 100 L. monocytogenes cells/g at the moment of consumption is acceptable can be adopted. Additional resources must be provided for research into infectious doses and the various routes of human exposure.

Energy drinks (EDs) have been available at the global market for almost 100 years and today, they are advertised as ’tools’ boost energy, enhance physical performance and mental alertness. Some of the main chemical components in EDs include caffeine, ginseng, and taurine. The market and consumption of these beverages is growing exponentially, and this is becoming a public health problem due to the adverse effects associated with these drinks. The main objective of this article is to review important ingredients in popular EDs in South Africa and look at their molecular mechanisms of action and interaction with other compounds within the body. At the same time, the authors aim to review the global consumption pattern of EDs among children and adolescents. Finally, this review article will provide an overview the health risks associated with EDs consumption. A literature review was conducted using scholarly databases. Keywords such as energy drinks, adverse effects, advertising, alcohol, caffeine, taurine, and regulations were used. Despite the claims of having significant benefits to mental and physical stamina, long-term consumption of EDs could have detrimental public health implications; and could result in increasing rates of the central nervous system disorders and the cardiovascular complications. A knowledge gap exists on how the lack of education impacts the decision of consumers of EDs and the parental guidance provided to children and adolescents in relation to the consumption of these beverages in South Africa. To address the issue of excessive ED consumption, communities need to be made aware of the harmful effects of these beverages through health education and implementing strict regulatory measures through policy.

Testing microbial quality of the harvested rainwater remains a challenge in many countries. The H2S test kit is a low-cost microbiological field-based test which can be used in areas where water testing facilities are limited. This study compares its efficiency with the standard indicators microorganisms in the detection of faecal contamination of rainwater in South Africa. A total of 88 rainwater samples were collected from various tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa over three months in 2016. The collected samples were analysed for faecal bacterial contamination using the H2S test kit, Colilert-18/Quanti-tray®/2000 and the membrane filtration technique for faecal coliforms (MFT). The correspondence rate of the H2S test kit with MFT was 88 %, while for the Colilert®it was 76 %. The H2S test kit confirmed faecal contamination when concentrations of standards indicators microorganisms were 5 most-probable number of cells/100 cm3or higher. Overall, the best correspondence of the H2S test kit with Colilert®was observed atE. coliconcentrations above 50 most-probable number of cells/100 cm3. Results of the H2S test kit correlated better with MTF, while the medium used has strongly influenced the enumeration of faecal contamination. Results point to strong effect of media used and revealed the need to calibrate the correspondence between the standard indicator microorganisms and the H2S test kit under local conditions for specific settings.

Microbial water quality is an essential aspect in the provision of potable water for domestic use. The provision of adequate amounts of safe water for domestic purposes has become difficult for most municipalities mandated to do so in Zimbabwe. Morton-Jaffray Treatment Plant supplies potable water to Harare City and areas surrounding Harare. This study investigated microbial water quality and the impact of microbial water quality related disasters in the area supplied by the Morton Jaffray Treatment Plant. Questionnaires were distributed to household owners in Harare who receive their water from the Municipality and those who use alternate water supplies. Candidates were randomly selected from their workplace. The raw water quality of Manyame River and its tributaries was assessed. Treated water in households was assessed for microbial quality using hydrogen sulphide test and heterotrophic bacteria plate count. Raw water sources were found to be contaminated by faecal matter. Household water sources tested negative for faecal contamination but positive for heterotrophic bacteria. CFU quantities ranged from 1 to 452 CFU/m\(\ell\) for all samples. The WHO guidelines for domestic water sources state that water used for domestic purposes should not contain more than 100 CFU/m\(\ell\). Public perceptions of water quality ranged from 'unsafe' to 'highly contaminated'. A decrease in the level of aesthetic appeal resulted in residents resorting to alternative sources such as wells and rivers for their domestic water. The current state of treated water was suitable for domestic use. Pathogen monitoring of domestic water is recommended using the hydrogen sulphide test and R2A agar test.

This study describes the results of a series of laboratory experiments on aimed at developing of a protocol for the use of fly ash as a pit additive in the ventilated improved pit latrines (VIPs) in South Africa. Model VIP vaults were prepared in the laboratory and filled with synthetic faecal sludge; and dosed with fly ash in amounts ranging from 5 to 20 % (w/w). The maximum leachable chemical oxygen demand (COD) accounted for 3.2 % of the total organic matter, while the maximum leachable ammonium accounted for 1.4 % of the leachable ammonium present in the synthetic faecal sludge. All phosphate in the synthetic faecal material was leachable. Mixing of the 20 % dose of fly ash into the synthetic faecal sludge resulted a minimum 98.9 % reduction (or about two log units) in the faecal coliform concentration after 28 days of incubation. As a result, addition of fly ash can decrease microbial threats to public and environmental health threats from the VIP faecal wastes, but can cause environmental contamination with phosphate. The fly ash dose and the duration of the faecal sludge treatment require further optimisation. Relationship between the chemical composition of the fly ash used as an additive to stabilise the VIP faecal sludge and the leaching of phosphorus from the sludge will also have to be investigated further.

Introduction: Although this paper deals mostly with the positive effects of a posthumanist worldview on environmental sustainability, partnership, or moral accountability in science and scientific research, it also promotes a new understanding of our educational practice in higher education. The ideas espoused have the ability to inspire educators at all levels to show students, future researchers or other professions about the importance of a progressive, holistic approach to our environment. We claim that being sensitive and caring for our environment is not only part of our moral and ethical responsibility, it is an inseparable aspect of our environmental education, our environmental intelligence. This paper discusses posthumanist1 reciprocity ethics in the context of traditional knowledge (TK) and the protection of indigenous traditional knowledge from commercial exploitation. Methods: Instances of unethical bioprospecting and biopiracy were common throughout the turn of the 21st century and are discussed using cases in countries such as Cameroon, India, South Africa and Australia, where medicinal plant species were, are still a highly sought-after source of potent, pharmacologically active phytochemicals. Results and discussion: The observed increase in regulations against bioprospecting on indigenous land in these countries as a result of intellectual property monopoly by big pharmaceutical companies is discussed in this paper along the lines of a ‘humanist vs posthumanist’ ontology. Patent exclusivity laws have historically marginalized the proprietary owners of indigenous traditional knowledge, creating a moral and ethical rift between those that seek to exploit this knowledge commercially and those from whom the knowledge originally comes from. This disconnection from nature and natural resources due to a humanistic approach2 to growth and development, often leads to environmental exploitation, exploitation of indigenous people and unsustainable commercial practices. Existing research and bioprospecting ethics that are practiced on indigenous lands must be questioned in their ability to provide mutually beneficial outcomes for all stakeholders. Conclusions: The posthumanist approach to morality and research ethics is discussed in this paper as a possible and practical alternative to humanism along with the potential for posthumanist ethics to be a tool to shape legal frameworks and the policies that protect at-risk communities and their respective natural environments. Our current developmental trajectory as a collective species has us blurring the lines that separate the ‘human’ from the ‘non-human’ elements in our world as humanity grows towards a more technologically advanced but equally environmentally dependent people. Thus, the currently existing systems of ethics that govern the relationship between the ‘human’ and ‘non-human’ must be called into question. This paper aims to illustrate the positive effects of a posthumanist worldview on issues such as environmental sustainability, partnership, moral accountability and reciprocity ethics in the context of modern science and modern scientific research.

Acute toxicity of raw and treated greywater towards Daphnia magna was assessed in this study. Treatment was performed with exposure of greywater to the fly-lime mixture After 48 h of exposure, 100 % mortality of D. magna was recorded when testing the following volumetric fractions of the raw greywater streams in the tested liquid medium (%; v/v): 10 % for kitchen greywater, 5 – 10 % for bathroom greywater and 1.25 – 10 % for laundry greywater. After greywater treatment with the fly-ash-lime mixture with pH adjustment to 7.0, 80 % of neonates of D. magna survived after exposure to treated laundry greywater in all dilutions at 48 h. At the same time, 100 % of neonates survived exposure to treated bathroom and kitchen greywater at all volumetric fractions. Therefore greywater had acute toxicity to D. magna, i.e. greywater treatment was required before its discharge or reuse. Values of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient between the chemical components of the raw greywater and treated greywater and the survival of D. magna indicated a lack of statistically significant correlation at 5 % level of significance (p-value > 0.05 in all cases), i.e. the survival of D. magna was independent of the concentration of chemical constituents in greywater samples tested. Further studies will have to be conducted on the chronic toxicity of the greywater effluent after treatment with the fly-lime mixture. Experiments from this study will have to be re-run for the fully scaled-up version of the fly-lime mixture-based greywater treatment systems.

To increase individual and communal environmental health awareness through an experiential-education project. A computer-based pre- and postintervention quiz; an educational poster; an interactive ...

Breakdown of health systems is a common outcome of natural disasters, which include tropical cyclones. Pharmacists interact with population, which might be at risk from disasters without the need for an appointment. This differs from other healthcare professionals such as medical doctors. Pharmacists can therefore develop trust and a working relationship with the community and can play a central role in the provision of healthcare in the communities they serve during disasters. This study explores the potential mechanism for the execution of the role of pharmacists in the South African disaster risk management (DRM) context as part of disaster health system and/or medicine. A combination of policy analysis and analysis of the professional scope of practice of pharmacists in DRM in South Africa is adopted as the main strategy of inquiry. Results show that the current roles and conduct boundaries of the South African pharmacists in DRM are limited by the legislation and code of conduct governing the scope of their professional practice. Hence, we recommend that the adaptation to DRM roles of pharmacists is necessary and suggestions for practice modifications are required.

Inadequate health coverage to rural areas is exacerbated by persisting socio-historical and economic barriers to rural health development, i.e. social and epistemic injustices such as poverty, racism, lack of education, and the effects of apartheid. Following this, the analysis of community health variables requires us to deploy complex conceptual models in our research approaches. In the case of rural health development presented in this chapter, we propose that an engaged research approach, underpinned by a complex conceptual model, is required to both properly understand and address rural health. Through an engaged research project pharmacists and fellow healthcare practitioners can understand the variables that determine community health and it can thereafter be harnessed and adapted for health development. This chapter promotes the integration of engaged research concepts, asset-based community development, culture and the transformative paradigm, epistemic justice, health promotion, and health literacy in developing rural health within a South African context.

Rhodes University for financial support and a bursary (E.O.O.) and the South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) for support with funds from National Treasury under its Economic Competitiveness and Support Package.

This paper describes study of ciprofloxacin and isoniazid removal from aqueous solutions using coal fly ash (FA), kaolinite, perlite, talc and vermiculite. The adsorptive features of the adsorbents were evaluated for ciprofloxacin and isoniazid with regards to the effects of contact time, pH, the solid/liquid ratio and antibiotic concentration. All adsorbents were sterilised by dry heat before use to avoid the proliferation of antimicrobial resistance by the bacteria present on the adsorbents during experiments. The regression correlation coefficients indicate that the Langmuir model gives the best fit for the sorption of both antibiotics onto FA and talc, ciprofloxacin onto kaolinite, and isoniazid onto perlite and vermiculite with R2 values ranging from 0.908 – 0.999. The Freundlich isotherm best describes the sorption of ciprofloxacin onto vermiculite and isoniazid onto kaolinite with R2 values of 0.999 for both. The Tempkin model best describes the sorption of ciprofloxacin onto perlite with an R2 = 0.997. The values of the Freundlich exponent, 1/n, range from 0.221 – 0.998, indicating a favourable adsorption of ciprofloxacin and isoniazid onto the adsorbents. The heat of sorption, B, calculated from the Temkin plots has values ranging from 0.018 – 10.460 J/mol, indicating a physical adsorption process (physisorption). Adsorption equilibrium was achieved after 30 min for both antibiotics and the kinetic data obtained conforms best to the pseudo-second order equation with R2 values ranging from 0.998 – 0.999. The removal of ciprofloxacin and isoniazid by all adsorbents except FA was strongly influenced by the pH suggesting that electrostatic interactions play a major role in the adsorption processes.

Introduction: South Africa is a member state of the “BRICS” bloc (BRICS2017.org, 2017) and the G20 group of the 20 nations/economic blocs, which between them account for the majority of the world’s trade and economic activity. It faces many developmental challenges which are mirrored in its higher education sector. In this article, the authors seek to provide an overview of the challenges that South African higher education faces in the achievement of the developmental goals of the country. The focus of this paper is a case study in WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) to improve context-specific responses that trains pharmacists on knowledge and skills. Methods: The study was performed as a combination of calculations and a literature review to obtain the background or current status of the higher education sector and developmental planning in South Africa. For this, data were extracted from the Statistics South Africa reports, relevant professional articles on South African higher education sector and results of postgraduate research. Workshop results which were obtained as a collaboration between a public and a private higher education institution and results of postgraduate research were used as the paradigm for transformation and decolonisation of the curriculum for a professional degree in South Africa. Results and discussion: Challenges exist in the South African tertiary education sector and the graduation rate currently stands at 65.1% of the target set by the National Development Plan. Around 58.1% of all students do not complete their university/post-secondary education, which could provide a partial explanation for the skills shortage in South Africa. Decolonisation and transformation of the tertiary education curriculum are major topics in the discourse on higher education in South Africa. The authors propose that one way to achieve this would be inclusion of research results and group activities in the area of water, sanitation and hygiene as a topic for possible and partial transformation of the Bachelor of Pharmacy curriculum. Conclusions: The current article summarises some of topics and challenges that drive the current discourse, developmental and curriculum debate in higher education in South Africa. Student access and through put at tertiary institutions need to be improved and the curriculum needs to be transformed.

This article seeks to provide an outline the scope of professional teaching and learning activities and their connection to civic engagement and the achievement of environmental sustainability at Rhodes University and in Makana Local Municipality. Activities in the context of rainwater water harvesting and sanitation research are used as examples. The improved hydrogen-sulphide test kit was used as the tool for the assessment of microbial water quality between April and July 2016. An approach to the improvement in the design and modelling of the performance of ventillated improved pit latrines under laboratory conditions is also described. All activities described have been taking place in the context of undergraduate and postgraduate student research projects at Rhodes University. They have implications for teaching and learning, civic engagement and environmental sustainability. Teaching and learning of the concepts of sustainability can facilitate the development of the necessary connection between academia and the society at large. This can have a significant positive effect on societal conditions in South Africa. Further endeavours similar those described in this article should be stimulated in South and beyond.

Iron is one of the essential micronutrients for plant development and fish growth in aquaponic systems. Iron is an essential element for photosynthesis, DNA synthesis, and many other cellular functions for plants. With regard to fish, it is an integral component of proteins involved in cellular respiration and oxygen transfer. Aquaponic systems are often iron deficient due to low amounts of iron in commercial fish feeds. Therefore, iron needs to be supplemented to ensure optimal plant performance. Adding these supplements requires close management of the system, and careful selection of chelating substances as the Fe-chelate bioavailability is environment dependent. Reports of iron supplementation and management in aquaponic systems are limited. This review critically examines iron supplementation strategies, different sources of iron and factors influencing iron uptake for optimal biomass production. The effectiveness of different iron chelates is also discussed. Furthermore, optimum ranges of dissolved iron concentrations for different components in an aquaponic system are reported. This review aims to provide a better understanding of iron optimisation strategies to minimise iron deficiency and enhance biomass growth. Keywords: Aquaponics, Chelates, Iron, Iron supplementation, Micronutrient

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a major threat to global public health, can be addressed using a managed care approach. This includes timely analysis of antibiotic consumption and procurement data to drive evidence-based policies and practices in healthcare facilities. ‘ABC analysis’ presents an opportunity for this. Methods: ABC analysis data for a comprehensive Primary Health Care (PHC) clinic in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa was obtained from the Provincial Department of Health for 01 April 2015 to 31 March 2018. Procured antibiotics were analysed on the quantities purchased, total cost, route of administration and spectrum of activity. Antibiotic categorization was also carried out according to the World Health Organization Model List of Essential Medicines (WHO EML) 2017. Results: Antibiotics made up approximately 7% of the total annual pharmaceutical expenditure. A total of 31, 35 and 34 antibiotics were procured in the first, second and third years, respectively. The most procured antibiotics were: (1) isoniazid, (2) flucloxacillin, (3) azithromycin, (4) a combination of rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol and (5) amoxicillin. Overall, 55%, 2% and 15% of antibiotics accounted for the ‘Access’, ‘Watch’ and ‘Access and Watch’ categories, respectively, of the WHO EML. No ‘Reserve’ antibiotics were procured. The remaining 28% were antituberculosis medicines. Altogether, 89%, 8% and 3% of the antibiotics were respectively administered orally, systemically, and topically. A total of 58% were broad-spectrum and 42% were narrow-spectrum antibiotics. Conclusion: Oral antibiotics in the ‘Access’ category presented favourable usage of antibiotics. Decreasing the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics requires consideration.

Rainwater harvesting provides a low-cost and flexible alternative for drinking water provision in decentralised settings in urban and rural areas of developing countries. Efficiency of a decentralised low-cost filter, i.e. Grifaid® filter, in the treatment of rainwater harvested at various sites at the Rhodes University campus in South Africa, was tested in this study. Sampling took place between beginning of August and end of October 2016. The treatment efficiency results indicate that Grifaid® filters remove 100 % of the faecal bacterial indicators and 100 % of turbidity from the treated rainwater. The pH values of the treated rainwater remain unaffected by the Grifaid® treatment. Ammonium and aluminium concentrations, measured in the harvested rainwater, were not considered dangerous for human health. However, nitrate concentrations surpassed the World Health Organisation of 50 mg/L and will require to be treated using ion exhcnage in further research.

Namibia has experienced challenges in the provision of drinking water to its population. A combination of various solutions should be explored to provide drinking water to the population. In this study, a combination of the raw water treatment with the Grifaid® filters and the compliance monitoring of microbial quality using the hydrogen-sulphide test kit was tested in two villages in Northern Namibia and one informal settlement in central Windhoek. The efficiency of treatment by site operators was limited as 100 % of samples taken at two of the sampling sites were positive for faecal contamination. Only at the Windhoek sampling site was the treatment of raw water by site operators partially successful, as 67 % of the treated water samples taken were negative for faecal contamination. Concentrations of faecal coliforms in the control samples ranged from below 0 to 6 CFUs/100 mL, with the correspondence rates with the H2S kit test ranging from 20 to 80 %. Recontamination of the water after treatment is the most likely cause of the positive signal in the H2S kit. The site operators found the Grifaid® filters easy to use, but stressed that proper training is required for operating the filters. The users stated that the use of the Grifaid® filters are only suitable as a short-term solution in drinking water provision to the target communities. Future research will have to focus on the testing of the chemical and physical characteristics of raw and treated water; and more detailed examination of the microbial composition of the water samples will have to be conducted. In addition, the citizen-science strategy will have to be modified to assist the community in preventing re-contamination of the treated water.

A series of novel, substituted 2-chloro-3-[(thiazol-2-yl)amino]-1,4-naphthoquinones have been prepared and shown to exhibit promising concentration-dependent activity against human SH-SY5Y cells, Plasmodium falciparum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and P. aeruginosa. Substituent effects on observed bioactivity have been explored; the para-fluorophenyl derivative 3d exhibited activity across the range of the bioassays employed, indicating the potential of the 2-chloro-3-[(4-arylthiazol-2-yl)amino]-1,4-naphthoquinone scaffold in the development of novel, broad spectrum therapeutics.

Floods occurred in the Ndlambe Local Municipality in South Africa in October 2012. During various stages of the post-disaster recovery, bacterial concentrations were measured in water and soil samples from the flood zone. All drinking water concentrations ofE. coliwere below 1–3 colony forming units per 100 millilitres (CFUs/100 mL). The flood waters contained between 46500 to more than 100000 CFUs/100 mL ofE. coli. {The concentrations ofSalmonellaspp. in the flood waters varied from 5000 to 250000 CFUs/100 mL. The presumptiveVibriospp. concentrations in flood waters ranged from 1000 to over 150000 CFUs/100 mL. {The soil concentrations forE. coliranged from 1 to above 330 colony-forming units per 1 g of soil dry weight (CFUs/g). The soil concentrations ofSalmonellaspp. varied from below 1 to 22 CFUs/g. The estimated airborne fungal concentrations ranged from 16820 to 28540 colony-forming units per 1 cubic meter. An outbreak of an infectious disease was recorded among the volunteers who assisted with the post-disaster recovery. The likely bacterial causative agents included strains ofAeromonasspp. andVibrio cholerae. Any human contact with either the contaminated flood waters or of flooded dwellings should only occur, if the individuals in questions are equipped with the full-body personal protective gear. Non-governmental stakeholders performed majority of the post-disaster recovery operations, as the local government could only cover 11% of the required costs. Applying sanitation funds to disaster recovery and increased use of the low-cost flood defence products in high risk areas could provide a solution for the future.

Although many developing countries use harvested rainwater (HRW) for drinking and other household purposes, its quality is seldom monitored. Continuous assessment of the microbial quality of HRW would ensure the safety of users of such water. The current study investigated the prevalence of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains and their antimicrobial resistance patterns in HRW tanks in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Rainwater samples were collected weekly between June and September 2016 from 11 tanks in various areas of the province. Enumeration of E. coli was performed using the Colilert®18/Quanti-Tray® 2000 method. E. coli isolates were obtained and screened for their virulence potentials using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and subsequently tested for antibiotic resistance using the disc-diffusion method against 11 antibiotics. The pathotype most detected was the neonatal meningitis E. coli (NMEC) (ibeA 28%) while pathotype enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) was not detected. The highest resistance of the E. coli isolates was observed against Cephalothin (76%). All tested pathotypes were susceptible to Gentamicin, and 52% demonstrated multiple-antibiotic resistance (MAR). The results of the current study are of public health concern since the use of untreated harvested rainwater for potable purposes may pose a risk of transmission of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli.

South Africa’s electricity consumption has been marked with a rapid surge ever since 1980, which makes the government appeal to nuclear power as a potential solution.