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Background: Knowledge of the core gut microbiome among Cameroonians is a preliminary step for a better implementation of treatment strategies to correct dysbiosis and improve health care management. HIV infection has continued to cause high mortality among those infected, but the types and frequency of human gut microbiota associated with or without HIV/AIDS presence have not been identified in the adult populations in Cameroon. Methods: This was a case-control and comparative study design that ran from June 2018 to September 2019. Stool Samples were purposively collected from 40 participants (15 HIV-negative and 25 HIV-positive) for the 16S rRNA gene sequencing on the next-generation Illumina® MiSeq™ sequencer. Blood samples were collected for HIV determine testing, CD4 Tcell count, and HIV viral load. Sequences were clustered into operational taxonomic units (OTUs) at ninety-nine percent identity and their representatives were accustomed to using a phylogenetic approach. Results: The study showed a phylogenetic taxonomy of the gut microbiome communities in two kingdoms (Archea and Bacteria) and eight Phylum [Firmicutes (44.7%), Bacteroidetes (43.7%), Proteobacteria (8.7%), Actinobacteria (1%), Fusobacteria (0.2%), Euryarchaeota (0.01%), Synergistetes (0.01%), Verrucomicrobia (0.01%) and unclassified phylum (1.7%)]. A total of 347 gut microbiota species were identified, including 55 unique species/oligotypes, and 28 pathobionts from the study population. HIV infection was characterized by significant gut microbiota compositional changes with HIV-positive less diverse (56 strains absent) with significantly increased OTUs of the butyrate-producing microbiome species as compared to HIV-negative individuals (p=0.001). Conclusions: A profile of 347 gut microbiome bacterial species was identified in the Cameroonian community. Particularly, from the 347 gut microbiome bacterial species profiled, eight phyla were identified, with 55 unique species/oligotypes containing more than one sequence and 28 pathobionts. A host of unknown/unclassified gut microbiome bacterial species were also noted circulating among the study population.

Background: The burden of Helicobacter pylori infection (HPI) in Africa remains high with varying levels of prevalence among children and adults reported in different regions of the continent. Persistent and uneradicated HPI could result in gastric cancer, although less severe pathological outcomes have been reported among Africans – the so-called “African enigma.” Summary: Analysis of endoscopic findings of the upper gastrointestinal tract demonstrates similarities with that of patients from the West. Thus, it could be asserted that the true picture of HPI in Africa is yet to be unveiled due to several challenges including inadequate health-care system, lack of treatment guidelines and standardized protocol for diagnosis, and lack of data. This review explores the prevalence, diagnosis, treatment, and health-care system in Africa as it relates to HPI, thus providing an update and highlighting the need for an African HPI guideline. Key Messages: There is high prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection (HPI) in Africa with an increasing burden of antibiotic resistance. Various methods including invasive and noninvasive methods are deployed in the diagnosis of HPI in Africa. There is a need for consensus on diagnosis and treatment of HPI in Africa.

Background: Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection affects more than half people worldwide particularly in African countries such as Cameroon. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of H. pylori infection and predictors risk factors among patients undergoing gastro-duodenal fibroscopy at the Centre Medical, la Cathédrale of Yaoundé. Methods: A facility-based descriptive cross-sectional study involving 147 patients was conducted from October 2015 to April 2016. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on socio-demographic factors and predictors of H. pylori infection. Gastric biopsies specimens were collected from the antrum and corpus using an Olympus GIF – Q30 fully immersible gastroscope respectively. The biopsies were screened for the presence of H. pylori by targeting the glmM gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS v. 20 with p-value

This study reports on food insecurity (FI) amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.College students in four regions of the US completed the two-item validated Hunger Vital Sign™ screening tool on Qualtrics.FI increased significantly after March 2020 among US students (worry about food running out: 25% to 35%; food did not last: 17% to 21%) with significant regional increase in the Midwest and South. An adjusted multivariable logistic regression model indicated students that ran out of food were significantly at greater odds of experiencing hardship with paying bills (AOR: 5.59, 95% CI =3.90-8.06).The findings identified an increase in the prevalence of FI among college students during the pandemic. Suggestions of how to address FI are discussed.

Childhood malnutrition is a multi-dimensional problem, and it adversely affects the productivity of nations as well as creating economic and social challenges among vulnerable groups. It remains a major challenge to public health in developing countries and Cameroon is not an exception. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of malnutrition in children 0-5years and contributing factors in the Tole health area. A cross-sectional study was carried out in eight quarters in Tole including 301parent/ children. Data was collected through the administration of questionnaire to children’s parents/caregivers to obtain socio-demographic and socio-economic information. In addition, measurement of anthropometric indices such as weight, height, and mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) were obtained. Data was entered into excel version 13 and analyzed using SPSS 22. Descriptive analysis was carried out to investigate the spread of scores. A chi square test was carried out to test for an association between sociodemographic/ socioeconomic characteristics and nutritional status of children. The Odds Ratio was used to measure the strength of association between potential predictive factors and nutritional status with significant levels measured at 95 % confidence interval (CI) and significant differences set at P

BackgroundColiform bacteria are major causative agents of bovine mastitis, a disease that has devastating effect on dairy animal health and milk production. This cross-sectional study, carried out in the North West region of Cameroon, sought to determine the prevalence of bovine mastitis, coliforms associated with bovine mastitis, risk factors for infection and the antibiotic resistance pattern of coliform bacterial isolates.Materials and methodsA total of 1608 udder quarters were sampled from 411 cows using a questionnaire, clinical examination, California Mastitis Test and milk culture. Primary isolation of coliform bacteria was done on MacConkey agar while identification of coliforms employed Gram-staining and biochemical testing. Each coliform bacterial isolate was challenged with 11 antibiotics using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method.ResultsThe prevalence of mastitis was 53.0% (218/411) and 33.1% (532/1608) at the cow- and quarter-levels respectively. Overall, 21.9% (90/411) cows and 8.2% (132/1608) udder quarters showed coliform mastitis.Escherichia coliwas isolated in 7.0% of mastitis milk, and other coliforms isolated wereEnterobacter cloacae(12.6%),Klebsiella pneumoniae(2.4%),Enterobacter sakazakii(1.1%),Klebsiella oxytoca(0.8%),Citrobacter freudii(0.4%),Serratia ficaria(0.4%) andSerratia liquefaciens(0.2%). Lactation stage, breed, history of mastitis and moist/muddy faeces contaminated environment were significantly associated (P-value < 0.05) with coliform mastitis. Coliform isolates (99.0%; 203/205) were resistant to at least one antibiotic tested. Amoxicillin had the highest resistance (88.8%) while norfloxacin had the least resistance (3.4%). Multidrug resistance was exhibited by 52.7% (108/205) of the isolates in a proportion of 27.8%Enterobacter cloacae, 10.7%E.coli, 6.3%Klebsiella pneumoniae, 2.9%Enterobacter sakazakii, 2.0%Klebsiella oxytoca, 1.0%Citrobacter freundii, 1.0%Serratia ficaria, 0.5%Serratia liquefaciensand 0.5%Serratia odorifera.ConclusionResults indicate a need to educate these dairy farmers about mastitis (particularly subclinical), proper hygiene methods in milking and the public health implications of consuming contaminated raw milk.

Students at higher institutions of learning are more susceptible to psychosocial problems compared to the general public. These may further be exacerbated by the measures put in place to curb the spread of COVID-19. This mixed methods study examined the factors associated with the psychosocial impact of COVID-19 on students’ financial stability, interpersonal relationships and worries related to achieving academic milestones. Data comprised of a series of closed and open-ended questions collected via Qualtrics from students in the United States and Africa (Central and West). The quantitative data were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages and chi-square, while the qualitative data was analyzed using thematic content analysis. More than 90% of the students resided in the United States, 72.5% were females and 78.4% were undergraduates. Financial hardship was experienced by 26.4% of the students, 55.8% indicated that COVID-19 negatively affected their relationship with friends and over 40% worried over delays in achieving academic milestones. Continent of residence, employment status and financial hardship were significantly associated with the negative impact of COVID-19 on one or more of the students’ relationships and with worries about achieving academic milestones. Qualitative data support the findings that financial hardship contributed to experience of psychological distress by students. It also revealed negative (compromised relationships – broken or fractured relationships and loneliness) and positive (bonding) impact of COVID-19 on interpersonal relationships. School administrators should provide students with resources to access economic relief packages and tele-counseling services to help meet their financial and psychosocial support needs amidst COVID-19. Article visualizations

Thirty-three (33) isolates of methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) from healthy edible marine fish harvested from two aquaculture settings and the Kariega estuary, South Africa, were characterised in this study. The phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility profiles to 13 antibiotics were determined, and their antibiotic resistance determinants were assessed. A multiplex PCR was used to determine the epidemiological groups based on the type of SCCmeccarriage followed by the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin-encoding genessea-sedand the Panton Valentine leucocidin gene (pvl). A high antibiotic resistance percentage (67–81%) was observed for Erythromycin, Ampicillin, Rifampicin, and Clindamycin, while maximum susceptibility to Chloramphenicol (100%), Imipenem (100%), and Ciprofloxacin (94%) was recorded. Nineteen (58%) of the MRSA strains had Vancomycin MICs of ≤2 μg/mL, 4 (12%) with MICs ranging from 4–8 μg/mL, and 10 (30%) with values ≥16 μg/mL. Overall, 27 (82%) isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR) with Erythromycin-Ampicillin-Rifampicin-Clindamycin (E-AMP-RIP-CD) found to be the dominant antibiotic-resistance phenotype observed in 4 isolates. Resistance genes such astetM,tetA,ermB,blaZ,andfemAwere detected in two or more resistant strains. A total of 19 (58%) MRSA strains possessed SCCmectypes I, II, or III elements, characteristic of healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA), while 10 (30%) isolates displayed SCCmectype IVc, characteristic of community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). Six (18%) of the multidrug-resistant strains of MRSA were enterotoxigenic, harbouring thesee, sea,orsecgenes. A prevalence of 18% (6/33) was also recorded for theluk-PVLgene. The findings of this study showed that marine fish contained MDR-MRSA strains that harbour SCCmectypes, characteristic of either HA-MRSA or CA-MRSA, but with a low prevalence of enterotoxin andpvlgenes. Thus, there is a need for continuous monitoring and implementation of better control strategies within the food chain to minimise contamination of fish with MDR-MRSA and the ultimate spread of the bug.

This study aimed to evaluate the antibiogram and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) of Vibrio isolates recovered from a marine fish (Argyrosomus japonicus) and water samples from two commercial dusky kob aquaculture farms and the Kariega estuary, South Africa, and to evaluate these findings for their public health implications. A total of 277 molecularly confirmed Vibrio isolates consisting of 126 Vibrio fluvialis, 45 Vibrio vulnificus, 30 Vibrio Parahaemolyticus, and 76 vibrios belonging to species of the genus other than Vibrio cholerae were subjected to susceptibility testing to 15 antibiotics by the disc diffusion method. Multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) was used to determine the antibiotic resistance-associated health risk, while polymerase chain reaction was used to evaluate the presence of 14 ARGs for nonsusceptible strains. Highest resistances were recorded to amoxicillin (76.2%), ampicillin (67.5%), erythromycin (38.3%), and doxycycline (35.0%), while susceptibilities were highest to gentamicin (100%), followed by norfloxacin (97.8%), florfenicol (90.3%), tetracycline (87.7%), and chloramphenicol (87.4%). We recorded a 58.5% multidrug resistance (resistance to ≥2 antimicrobial classes). MARI did not vary significantly between sites (p 0.05); however, values of0.2 were recorded in 40% (108/277) of all strains tested. ARG markers, ampC, blaOXA, tetA, tetM, dfr1, sul1, sul2, ermB, nptII, strA, and SXT integrase, were detected in one or more strains with ermB (82.5%), sul2 (53.8%), strA (44%), dfr1 (42.3%), and tetM (38.3%) being the most abundant. Healthy marine finfish (dusky kob) and their environment can serve as reservoirs for antibiotic resistant vibrios and ARGs, which could be disseminated to humans and other susceptible bacteria and this therefore becomes a public health concern.

Background Toxoplasmosis is caused by an obligate intracellular tissue protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii that infect humans and other warm-blooded animals. Transmission to humans is by eating raw or inadequately cooked infected meat or through ingestion of oocysts that cats have passed in faeces. Studies have shown life-threatening and substantial neurologic damage in immunocompromised patients; however, 80% of humans remain asymptomatic. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in HIV positive patients and the risk factors associated with the infection, and to investigate the correlation between CD4+ T-cell count and toxoplasma specific antibodies as possible predictors of each other amongst HIV patients in the Bamenda Health District of the North West Region of Cameroon. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted, in which 325 HIV patients were recruited for administration of questionnaire, serological diagnosis of T. gondii and measurement of CD4+ T-cell count. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression was used to identify risk factors associated with T. gondii infection while the linear regression was used to investigate the relationship between CD4+ T-cell count and antibody levels against T. gondii. Results The findings showed that, majority (45.8%) of HIV patients suffered from chronic (IgG antibody) infection, and 6.5% from acute (IgM and IgM/IgG antibody) toxoplasma infection. The overall sero-prevalence of T. gondii infection amongst HIV patients was 50.5%. On the whole, 43 men (45.7%) and 127 women (55%) presented with anti- T. gondii antibodies; however, there was no significant difference amongst males and females who were positive to T. gondii infection (p = 0.131). Marital status (p = 0.0003), contact with garden soil (p = 0.0062), and garden ownership (p = 0.009), were factors that showed significant association with T. gondii infection. There was no significant difference (p = 0.909) between the mean CD4+ T-cell count of HIV patients negative for toxoplasma infection (502.7 cells/mL), chronically infected with T. gondii (517.7 cells/mL) and acutely infected with T. gondii (513.1 cells/mL). CD4+ T-cell count was neither a predictor of IgM antibody titer (r = 0.193, p = 0.401), nor IgG antibody titer (r = 0.149, p = 0.519) amongst HIV patients acutely infected with T. gondii. Conclusion The findings from this study underscore the need to implement preventive and control measures to fight against T. gondii infection amongst HIV patients in the Bamenda Health District.

The novel coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) caused disruptions in the delivery of higher education around the globe. To understand how universities and students are dealing with the sudden change from in-person course delivery to online format, this cross-sectional mixed-method study aimed to (a) ascertain the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on students’ ability to access online learning; (b) examine how college students adapted to changes in the learning/teaching environment; and (c) explore the students’ perspective on measures that institutions of higher learning could have adopted to ease the abrupt transition to online learning. Results indicate a majority of participants in the US reported access to internet and computers for off-campus learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. A little over half of participants from Africa reported internet access during the COVID-19 pandemic (82% of participants from Nigeria and 66.7% from Ghana). Participants from Cameroon reported the lowest percentage of access to online learning at 59.1%. Participants from Africa reported challenges in adapting to online format due to inadequate access to necessary technological resources such as a reliable internet and computer. Participants identified internal and external resources that could have been adopted to better deal with the transition to online learning. Institutions of higher learning can learn from their initial response to the COVID-19 pandemic to formulate and adjust policies that provide flexibility to effectively transition to online learning while catering to the social, educational and health needs of their students.

Objective: To evaluate the prevalence of Enterococcus species in cattle faeces, their corresponding drug resistant patterns as well as the genes coding for resistance in the isolates. Methods: Two hundred and ninety rectal swabs were cultured for the isolation of Enterococcus. Presumptive isolates were confirmed by PCR, targeting the tuf gene, and confirmed isolates were identified to species level, using species-specific primers aimed at targeting six different species. Additionally, antibiogram was performed by disc diffusion and genes implicated in resistance were evaluated using molecular methods. Results: All presumptive isolates were confirmed as Enterococcus and speciated as: Enterococcus hirae (82%), Enterococcus faecium (5%), Enterococcus durans (5%), Enterococcus faecalis (2%) and 6% of unidentified species. Resistance to various antimicrobials ranged from 16.4% for penicillin to 69.6% for erythromycin. Among the tetracycline and erythromycin-resistant isolates, tet M (100%) and erm B (29%) were the only amplified genes known to mediate resistance respectively. Other detected genes included van B (25%), van C1 (21%) and bla Z (11%). Conclusions: A high prevalence of multidrug resistant Enterococcus species was observed in this study, accentuating the need to improve on animal farming practices to prevent the dissemination of this microorganism to the environment.

Buruli ulcer (BU), caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans, is a neglected tropical disease associated with freshwater habitats. A variety of limnic organisms harbor this pathogen, including aquatic bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera), which have been hypothesized to be epidemiologically important reservoirs. Aquatic Hemiptera exhibit high levels of diversity in the tropics, but species identification remains challenging. In this study, we collected aquatic bugs from emerging foci of BU in the Southwest Region of Cameroon, which were identified using morphological and molecular methods. The bugs were screened for mycobacterial DNA and a selection of 20 mycobacteria-positive specimens from the families Gerridae and Veliidae were subjected to next-generation sequencing. Only one individual revealed putative M. ulcerans DNA, but all specimens contained sequences from the widespread alphaproteobacterial symbiont, Wolbachia. Phylogenetic analysis placed the Wolbachia sequences into supergroups A, B, and F. Circularized mitogenomes were obtained for seven gerrids and two veliids, the first from these families for the African continent. This study suggests that aquatic Hemiptera may have a minor role (if any) in the spread of BU in Southwest Cameroon. Our metagenomic analysis provides new insights into the incursion of Wolbachia into aquatic environments and generated valuable resources to aid molecular taxonomic studies of aquatic Hemiptera. © 2019 by the authors.

Thirty-three (33) isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from healthy edible marine fish harvested from two aquaculture settings and the Kariega estuary, South Africa, were characterised in this study. The phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility profiles to 13 antibiotics were determined, and their antibiotic resistance determinants were assessed. A multiplex PCR was used to determine the epidemiological groups based on the type of SCCmec carriage followed by the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin-encoding genes sea-sed and the Panton Valentine leucocidin gene (pvl). A high antibiotic resistance percentage (67–81%) was observed for Erythromycin, Ampicillin, Rifampicin, and Clindamycin, while maximum susceptibility to Chloramphenicol (100%), Imipenem (100%), and Ciprofloxacin (94%) was recorded. Nineteen (58%) of the MRSA strains had Vancomycin MICs of ≤2 μg/mL, 4 (12%) with MICs ranging from 4–8 μg/mL, and 10 (30%) with values ≥16 μg/mL. Overall, 27 (82%) isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR) with Erythromycin-Ampicillin-Rifampicin-Clindamycin (E-AMP-RIP-CD) found to be the dominant antibiotic-resistance phenotype observed in 4 isolates. Resistance genes such as tetM, tetA, ermB, blaZ, and femA were detected in two or more resistant strains. A total of 19 (58%) MRSA strains possessed SCCmec types I, II, or III elements, characteristic of healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA), while 10 (30%) isolates displayed SCCmec type IVc, characteristic of community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). Six (18%) of the multidrug-resistant strains of MRSA were enterotoxigenic, harbouring the see, sea, or sec genes. A prevalence of 18% (6/33) was also recorded for the luk-PVL gene. The findings of this study showed that marine fish contained MDR-MRSA strains that harbour SCCmec types, characteristic of either HA-MRSA or CA-MRSA, but with a low prevalence of enterotoxin and pvl genes. Thus, there is a need for continuous monitoring and implementation of better control strategies within the food chain to minimise contamination of fish with MDR-MRSA and the ultimate spread of the bug.

Buruli ulcer (BU), caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans, is a neglected tropical disease associated with freshwater habitats. A variety of limnic organisms harbor this pathogen, including aquatic bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera), which have been hypothesized to be epidemiologically important reservoirs. Aquatic Hemiptera exhibit high levels of diversity in the tropics, but species identification remains challenging. In this study, we collected aquatic bugs from emerging foci of BU in the Southwest Region of Cameroon, which were identified using morphological and molecular methods. The bugs were screened for mycobacterial DNA and a selection of 20 mycobacteria-positive specimens from the families Gerridae and Veliidae were subjected to next-generation sequencing. Only one individual revealed putative M. ulcerans DNA, but all specimens contained sequences from the widespread alphaproteobacterial symbiont, Wolbachia. Phylogenetic analysis placed the Wolbachia sequences into supergroups A, B, and F. Circularized mitogenomes were obtained for seven gerrids and two veliids, the first from these families for the African continent. This study suggests that aquatic Hemiptera may have a minor role (if any) in the spread of BU in Southwest Cameroon. Our metagenomic analysis provides new insights into the incursion of Wolbachia into aquatic environments and generated valuable resources to aid molecular taxonomic studies of aquatic Hemiptera. © 2019 by the authors.

Globally, malaria in recent years has witnessed a decline in the number of cases and death, though the most recent world malaria report shows a slight decrease in the number of cases in 2018 compared to 2017 and, increase in 2017 compared to 2016. Africa remains the region with the greatest burden of the disease. Cameroon is among the countries with a very high burden of malaria, with the coastal and forest regions carrying the highest burden of the disease. Nkongho-mbeng is a typical rural setting in the equatorial rain forest region of Cameroon, with no existing knowledge of the epidemiology of malaria in this locality. This study aimed at determining the current status of malaria epidemiology in Nkongho-mbeng. A cross-sectional survey was conducted, during which blood samples were collected from 500 participants and examined by microscopy. Risk factors such as, age, sex, duration of stay in the locality, housing type, environmental sanitation and intervention strategies including use of, LLINs and drugs were investigated. Trends in malaria morbidity were also determined. Of the 500 samples studied, 60 were positive, giving an overall prevalence of 12.0% with the prevalence of asymptomatic infection (10.8%), more than quadruple the prevalence of symptomatic infections (1.2%) and, fever burden not due to malaria was 1.4%. The GMPD was 6,869.17 parasites/μL of blood (95% C.I: 4,977.26/μL– 9,480.19/μL). A LLINs coverage of 84.4% and 77.88% usage was observed. Unexpectedly, the prevalence of malaria was higher among those sleeping under LLINs (12.56%) than those not sleeping under LLINs (8.97%), though the difference was not significant (p = 0.371). Being a male (p = 0.044), being unemployed (p = 0.025) and, living in Mbetta (p = 0.013) or Lekwe (p = 0.022) and the presence bushes around homes (p = 0.002) were significant risk factors associated with malaria infection. Trends in proportion demonstrated that, the prevalence of malaria amongst patients receiving treatment in the health center from 2015 to 2019 decreased significantly (p < 0.001) and linearly from 9.74% to 3.08% respectively. Data generated from this study can be exploited for development of a more effective control measures to curb the spread of malaria within Nkongho-mbeng.

Background Escherichia coli O157 is an emerging foodborne pathogen of great public health concern. It has been associated with bloody diarrhoea, haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic uremic syndrome in humans. Most human infections have been traced to cattle and the consumption of contaminated cattle products. In order to understand the risk associated with the consumption of cattle products, this study sought to investigate the prevalence and identify virulence genes in E. coli O157 from cattle in Cameroon. Method A total of 512 rectal samples were obtained and analysed using conventional bacteriological methods (enrichment on modified Tryptone Soy Broth and selective plating on Cefixime-Tellurite Sorbitol Mac-Conkey Agar) for the isolation of E. coli O157. Presumptive E. coli O157 isolates were confirmed serologically using E. COLIPROTM O157 latex agglutination test and molecularly using PCR targeting the rfb gene in the isolates. Characterisation of the confirmed E. coli O157 strains was done by amplification of stx1, stx2, eaeA and hlyA virulence genes using both singleplex and multiplex PCR. Results E. coli O157 was detected in 56 (10.9%) of the 512 samples examined. The presence of the virulence genes stx2, eaeA and hylA was demonstrated in 96.4% (54/56) of the isolates and stx1 in 40 (71.4%) of the 54. The isolates exhibited three genetic profiles (I-III) with I (stx1, stx2, eaeA and hlyA) being the most prevalent (40/56; 71.4%) while two isolates had none of the virulence genes tested. Conclusion A proportion of cattle slaughtered in abattoirs in Buea are infected with pathogenic E. coli O157 and could be a potential source of human infections. We recommend proper animal food processing measures and proper hygiene be prescribed and implemented to reduce the risk of beef contamination.

Objectives Helicobacter pylori is a pathogenic bacterium that parasitizes the gastric mucous layer and the epithelial lining of the stomach causing duodenal ulcers, gastric ulcers and cardiovascular disease amongst others. This study aimed at establishing the epidemiologic profile of H. pylori infection in gastritis patients presenting at the Melong District Hospital. Results Blood, stool and epidemiological data collected from 500 patients were analyzed for the presence of H. pylori antibody in serum, antigen in stool and elucidation of risk factors captured in questionnaires. Of 500 blood samples, 217 (43.4%) were seropositive with male and female seroprevalences of 45.5% (61/134) and 42.6% (156/366) respectively. Similarly, 47.4% (237/500) samples tested positive for stool antigen with prevalences of 47.0% (63/134) for males and 47.5% (174/366) for females. The antigen prevalence was higher (53.2%; 118/222) in older patients (> 50 years) than in younger patients (42.8%; 119/278; P = 0.021). The antigen test had a higher (47.4%) prevalence than the antibody test (43.4%). Educational level, source of income, source of drinking water, age of patients, and alcohol consumption had positive associations with H. pylori infection. These results have clinical and epidemiological significance and call for intervention to mitigate the situation.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) relationship with humans is believed to have originated in Africa and three African H. pylori populations have been identified: hpAfrica1, hpAfrica2 and hpNEAfrica. Actually, H. pylori infection is a ubiquitous infection in developing countries, particularly Africa. In this continent, the prevalence of H. pylori is higher and the bacterium is acquired at an early age compared to developed countries. In fact, while it affects over 50% of humans in developed countries its prevalence reaches 80% or more among adults in Africa. This paper reviews works in literatures, including epidemiology, virulence genes, gastric pathology and antimicrobial treatment and resistance of H. pylori in Africa.

Background: Tuberculosis (TB) has been ranked as one of the leading causes of death worldwide. In Cameroon, the National Tuberculosis Control Program aims to fight TB through the implementation of international directives (Directly Observed Treatment Short course [DOTS]). TB control program must reach global targets for detection (70%) and treatment success (85%) as stated by the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Implementing DOTS in Cameroon has not met the MDGs of 85% success rate. This study aimed at identifying factors affecting treatment success. Methods: A cross-sectional retrospective study was used to collect data from 895 TB registers from January 2011 to December 2012. Out of the seven treatment centers in Fako Division, three were randomly selected following stratification into government, not-for-profit and for-profit structures. Descriptive statistics were used to obtain frequencies. Binomial logistics regression was used to obtain significant values for the various factors. Multinomial logistics was used on significant factors. Results: Of the 895 registered TB patient records obtained, 416 (46.5%) patient were female and 479 (53.5%) patient were male. Characterizing TB patients, 510 (57.0%) were smear-positive pulmonary TB, 225 (25.1%) were smear-negative pulmonary TB, and 160 (17.9%) were extrapulmonary TB patients. Comparing treatment success rate (TSR) across the three centers, Baptist Hospital Mutengene had the highest value 94.97 (38%), followed by Regional Hospital Buea 83.74 (33%), and Central Clinic Tiko the least 73.13 (29%). Conclusion: Patient registration year, treatment center, TB classification, and HIV status were identified to significantly affect TSR, hence, effectiveness of the TB program.

This study was conducted to ascertain the occurrence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in marine finfish (Argyrosomus japonicus) harvested from the wild and two re-circulatory aquaculture systems, and evaluating the reliability of three phenotypic methods in the detection of methicillin resistance. A total of 120 dusky kob fish were sampled for S. aureus detection using conventional methods and confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the nuc gene. Methicillin resistance was determined by molecular detection of the mecA gene. Using mecA as the defining standard, the specificities and sensitivities of cefoxitin disc diffusion, oxacillin screen agar, and growth of S. aureus on Brilliance MRSA II Agar were evaluated. A total of 321 presumptive S. aureus isolates were recovered by culture, out of which 202 (62.9%) were confirmed by PCR. Of these, 33 (16.3%) strains were mecA positive while 169 (83.7%) were mecA negative. The sensitivities and specificities of MRSA detection was 93.9 and 91.7%, 81.8 and 92.3%, and 87.9 and 94.1% for cefoxitin disc, oxacillin screen agar test, and Brilliance MRSA II agar, respectively. This is so far the first report of MRSA in dusky kob aquaculture in South Africa. In the absence of molecular techniques, cefoxitin disc diffusion test is recommended along with any other phenotypic method to improve MRSA detection from samples of veterinary origin. Practical implications Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus currently presents one of the greatest challenges for medical research worldwide, as well as is one of the most important causes of bacteria gastroenteritis due to preformed toxins in foods. There is a dearth of knowledge on marine foods as carriers/sources of MRSA infection. There are also major discrepancies obtained with MRSA detection methods, making effective detection of this pathogen complicated. The results from this study show that healthy aquaculture fish are reservoirs of MRSA, thus it is necessary to regularly monitor marine foods. Cefoxitin disc diffusion test is recommended as the preferred method for detection of MRSA from fish/food samples where molecular methods are lacking.

Background: Seafood-borne Vibrio infections, often linked to contaminated seafood and water, are of increasing global public health concern. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of human pathogenic vibrios and their associated virulence genes isolated from fish and water samples from 2 commercial dusky kob farms and Kareiga estuary, South Africa. Methods: A total of 200 samples including dusky kob fish (n = 120) and seawater (n = 80) were subjected to Vibrio screening on thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose agar (TCBS). Presumptive isolates were confirmed and delineated to V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, and V. fluvialis by PCR. Various pathogenic gene markers were screened: V. parahaemolyticus (trh and tdh), V. vulnificus (vcgE and vcgC) and V. fluvialis (stn, vfh, hupO, vfpA). Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) of the vvhA gene of V. vulnificus strains was performed to determine the associated biotypes. Results: Total Vibrio prevalence was 59.4% (606/1020) of which V. fluvialis was the most predominant 193 (31.85%), followed by Vibrio vulnificus 74 (12.21%) and V. parahaemolyticus 33 (5.45%). No V. cholerae strain was detected. One of the V. parahaemolyticus strains possessed the trh gene 7 (9.46%) while most (91.9%; 68/74) V. vulnificus isolates were of the E-type genotype. V. fluvialis virulence genes detected were stn (13.5%), hupO (10.4%) and vfpA (1.0%). 12.16% (9/74) of V. vulnificus strains exhibited a biotype 3 RFLP pattern. Conclusions: This is the first report of potentially pathogenic vibrios from healthy marine fish in the study area, and therefore a public health concern.

Escherichia coli remains a public health concern worldwide as an organism that causes diarrhea and its reservoir in raw milk may play an important role in the survival and transport of pathogenic strains. Diarrheagenic E. coli strains are diverse food-borne pathogens and causes diarrhea with varying virulence in humans. We investigated the prevalence of pathogenic E. coli in raw milk from two commercial dairy farms. Four hundred raw milk samples, 200 from each dairy farm, were screened for the presence of fliCH7, eagR, ial, eagg, lt, and papC genes. In dairy farm A, 100 E. coli were identified based on culture, oxidase and Gram staining, while 88 isolates from dairy farm B were identified in the same manner. Gene detection showed fliCH7 27 (54%) to be the highest gene detected from farm A and lt 2 (4%) to be the lowest. The highest gene detected in dairy farm B was fliCH7 16 (43.2%) and papC 1 (2.7%) was the least. The amplification of pathogenic genes associated with diarrheagenic E. coli from cows’ raw milk demonstrates that potentially virulent E. coli strains are widely distributed in raw milk and may be a cause of concern for human health.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a deadly infectious disease affecting millions of people worldwide; 95% of TB cases, with 98% of death occur in developing countries. The situation in South Africa merits special attention. A total of 21,913 sputum specimens of suspected TB patients from three provinces of South Africa routinely submitted to the TB laboratory of Dr. George Mukhari (DGM) Hospital were assayed for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) growth and antibiotic susceptibility. The genetic diversity of 338 resistant strains were also studied. DNA isolated from the strains were restricted with Pvu II, transferred on to a nylon membrane and hybridized with a PCR-amplified horseradish peroxidase 245 bp IS6110 probe. Of the 338 resistant strains, 2.09% had less than 5 bands of IS6110, and 98% had 5 or more bands. Unique restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns were observed in 84.3% of the strains, showing their epidemiological independence, and 15.7% were grouped into 22 clusters. Thirty-two strains (61.5%) from the 52 that clustered were from Mpumalanga, 16/52 (30.8%) from Gauteng, and 4/52 (9.6%) from Limpopo province. Clustering was not associated with age. However, strains from male patients in Mpumalanga were more likely to be clustered than strains from male patients in Limpopo and/or Gauteng province. The minimum estimate for the proportion of resistant TB that was due to transmission is 9.06% (52-22 = 30/331). Our results indicate that transmission of drug-resistant strains may contribute substantially to the emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis in South Africa.

Purpose Occult hepatitis B infection (OBI) among HIV positive patients varies widely in different geographic regions. We undertook a study to determine the prevalence of occult hepatitis B infection among HIV infected individuals visiting a health facility in South West Cameroon and characterized occult HBV strains based on sequence analyses. Methods Plasma samples (n = 337), which previously tested negative for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), were screened for antibodies against hepatitis B core (anti-HBc) and surface (anti-HBs) antigens followed by DNA extraction. A 366 bp region covering the overlapping surface/polymerase gene of HBV was then amplified in a nested PCR and the amplicons sequenced using Sanger sequencing. The resulting sequences were then analyzed for genotypes and for escape and drug resistance mutations. Results Twenty samples were HBV DNA positive and were classified as OBI giving a prevalence of 5.9%. Out of these, 9 (45%) were anti-HBs positive, while 10 (52.6%) were anti-HBc positive. Additionally, 2 had dual anti-HBs and anti-HBc reactivity, while 6 had no detectable HBV antibodies. Out of the ten samples that were successfully sequenced, nine were classified as genotype E and one as genotype A. Three sequences possessed mutations associated with lamivudine resistance. We detected a number of mutations within the major hydrophilic region of the surface gene where most immune escape mutations occur. Conclusions Findings from this study show the presence of hepatitis B in patients without any of the HBV serological markers. Further prospective studies are required to determine the risk factors and markers of OBI. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12981-017-0136-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Introduction: Wound infection is a significant clinical challenge in hospitals in developing countries where proper healthcare delivery is hampered by limited resources. This study investigated the antibiotic susceptibility pattern of bacteria causing wound infection and risk factors for infection among hospitalized patients in Buea, Cameroon, to generate findings which could drive reformation of policies on infection control.Methods: Aerobic bacteria were isolated from 212 swabs collected from patients with clinically diagnosed infected wounds. Risk factors for wound infection were investigated. Antibiotic susceptibility of isolates was determined by disk diffusion technique. The Chi-square test was employed to determine significant differences in isolation and distribution of organisms in various specimens. Differences were considered significant at P < 0.05.Results: Twelve bacteria species were isolated from 169 (79.7%) specimens. Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae, the predominant isolates in all wound types exhibited a high preponderance of multidrug resistant strains. High rate of infection was attributed tolack of constant water supply and breakdown of sterilization equipment during the study period. Highest diversity of pathogens occurred in open wounds. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in isolation of pathogens with respect to age, gender and wound type. Co-existing morbidity increased risk of wound infection. Isolates were susceptible to fluoroquinolones and resistant to oxacillin. Conclusion: Wound infection with resistant bacteria constitutes a significant cause of morbidity in the study area. Findings reiterate the need to strengthen infection control and drug dispensing policies, and greater collaboration between microbiologists and medical practioners to stem the spread of resistant bacteria.Key words: Wound infection; antibiotic susceptibility; co-morbidity, bacterial pathogens, Cameroon

This study assessed the antimicrobial susceptibility of 51 Listeria ivanovii and 33 Enterobacter cloacae strains isolated from various ready-to-eat foods sold in Alice, South Africa. Isolates were identified using standard microbiological tests and further confirmed using API 20E and API Listeria kits. The disc diffusion technique was used to screen for antimicrobial susceptibility against 15 antimicrobials; minimum inhibitory concentration of five antibiotics was determined by the broth dilution method. All the strains of E. cloacae (100%) and 96% of L. ivanovii isolates were resistant to at least four or more of the antibiotics; nineteen antibiotypes were obtained based on the antibiotics used in the study. Antibiotype A5: AR PGR VAR ER APR was predominant in both L. ivanovii (23.5%) and E. cloacae (57.5%) isolates. Marked susceptibility of Listeria ivanovii was observed against chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, streptomycin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (100%) each while E. cloacae registered 100% susceptibility to ciprofloxacin only. Various percentages of susceptibility was reported to chloramphenicol and gentamicin (91%) each, nalidixic acid (97%) and streptomycin (94%). The MIC90 ranged from 0.004–7.5 µg/mL with E. cloacae being the most susceptible organism. The study demonstrated the presence of multi-resistant strains of bacteria in ready-to-eat-foods and speculates that these foods could serve as important vehicles transmitting multi-resistant bacteria to humans.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) causes tuberculosis (TB) in humans and animals. We investigated the presence of MTBC in cattle milk and its drug resistance using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Two hundred samples (100 mL each) were obtained from a dairy farm in the Nkonkobe region of South Africa. The samples were processed using the modified Petroff method. DNA was isolated using a Zymo Bacterial DNA kit and amplified using Seeplex(®) MTB Nested ACE assay. The Genotype(®) Mycobacterium tuberculosis-multidrug resistantplus (MTBDRplus) assay was used to perform drug susceptibility and detection of mutations conferring resistance to isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RIF). Eleven samples tested positive for MTBC DNA using the Seeplex(®) MTB Nested ACE assay. The Genotype(®) MTBDRplus assay showed that 10/11 samples were resistant to both INH and RIF i.e., multi-drug resistant (MDR). The most and least frequent rpoB mutations detected in RIF resistant samples were H526Y (9/10) and D516V (2/10) respectively. None of the INH resistant samples harbored mutations in the katG gene. However, all of them harbored the T8A mutation in the inhA gene. These results have clinical and epidemiological significance and calls for further studies and necessary actions to delineate the situation.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) causes tuberculosis (TB) in humans and animals. We investigated the presence of MTBC in cattle milk and its drug resistance using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Two hundred samples (100 mL each) were obtained from a dairy farm in the Nkonkobe region of South Africa. The samples were processed using the modified Petroff method. DNA was isolated using a Zymo Bacterial DNA kit and amplified using Seeplex® MTB Nested ACE assay. The Genotype® Mycobacterium tuberculosis-multidrug resistantplus (MTBDRplus) assay was used to perform drug susceptibility and detection of mutations conferring resistance to isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RIF). Eleven samples tested positive for MTBC DNA using the Seeplex® MTB Nested ACE assay. The Genotype® MTBDRplus assay showed that 10/11 samples were resistant to both INH and RIF i.e., multi-drug resistant (MDR). The most and least frequent rpoB mutations detected in RIF resistant samples were H526Y (9/10) and D516V (2/10) respectively. None of the INH resistant samples harbored mutations in the katG gene. However, all of them harbored the T8A mutation in the inhA gene. These results have clinical and epidemiological significance and calls for further studies and necessary actions to delineate the situation.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in honey are obtained from diverse biosynthetic pathways and extracted by using various methods associated with varying degrees of selectivity and effectiveness. These compounds are grouped into chemical categories such as aldehyde, ketone, acid, alcohol, hydrocarbon, norisoprenoids, terpenes and benzene compounds and their derivatives, furan and pyran derivatives. They represent a fingerprint of a specific honey and therefore could be used to differentiate between monofloral honeys from different floral sources, thus providing valuable information concerning the honey's botanical and geographical origin. However, only plant derived compounds and their metabolites (terpenes, norisoprenoids and benzene compounds and their derivatives) must be employed to discriminate among floral origins of honey. Notwithstanding, many authors have reported different floral markers for honey of the same floral origin, consequently sensory analysis, in conjunction with analysis of VOCs could help to clear this ambiguity. Furthermore, VOCs influence honey's aroma described as sweet, citrus, floral, almond, rancid, etc. Clearly, the contribution of a volatile compound to honey aroma is determined by its odor activity value. Elucidation of the aroma compounds along with floral origins of a particular honey can help to standardize its quality and avoid fraudulent labeling of the product. Although only present in low concentrations, VOCS could contribute to biomedical activities of honey, especially the antioxidant effect due to their natural radical scavenging potential.

In this study, the effect of the acetone extract of Arctotis arctotoides (L.f.) O. Hoffm. (Asteraceae) on the growth and ultrastructure of some opportunistic fungi associated with HIV/AIDS was analyzed by means of scanning electron microscope (SEM). Remarkable morphological alterations in the fungal mycelia which were attributed to the loss of cell wall strength ranged from loss of turgidity and uniformity, collapse of entire hyphae to evident destruction of the hyphae. The elements responsible for giving the fungi their characteristic virulence were detected and quantified by energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis techniques. X-ray microanalysis showed the specific spectra of sodium, potassium and sulfur as the principal intersection of the four pathogenic fungi studied. Since these ions have the potential of fostering fungal invasion by altering the permeability of hosts’ membranes, their presence was considered inherent to the pathogenicity of the opportunistic fungi. Hence, these findings indicate the potential of the crude extract of A. arctotoides in preventing fungal invasion and subsequent infection of host’s membranes.

Sequence diversity and population structures can vary widely among pathogenic bacteria species. In some species, all isolates are highly similar, whereas in others most of the isolates are distinguished easily. H. pylori is known for its wide genetic diversity amongst the various strains most especially in the genes involved in virulence. The aim of this study was to evaluate by PCR and sequence analysis, the genetic profile of H. pylori vacA gene (s1, s2, m1 and m2). We sequenced small DNA segments from 13 vacAs1, 10 vacAm2, 6 vacAm1 and 6 vacAs2 strains which were amplified with amplicon size of 259/286 bp, 290 bp and 352 bp for vacAs1/s2, m1 and m2 respectively. Based on similarities among our strains accession numbers were provided for seven vacAs1 (HQ709109–HQ709115), six vacAs2 (JN848463–JN848468), six vacAm1 (JN848469–JN848474) and six vacAm2 (HQ650801–HQ650806) strains. Amongst the strains studied, 98.07%, 98.58%, 97.38% and 95.41% of vacAs1, vacAs2, vacAm1 and vacAm2 of the strains were conserved respectively. Findings of this study underscores the importance of understanding the virulence composition and diversity of H. pylori in South Africa for enhanced clinico-epidemiological monitoring and pathophysiology of disease.

The aim of this study was to identify sources of cheap starting materials for the synthesis of new drugs against Helicobacter pylori. Solvent-extracts of selected medicinal plants; Combretum molle, Sclerocarya birrea, Garcinia kola, Alepidea amatymbica and a single Strychnos species were investigated against 30 clinical strains of H. pylori alongside a reference control strain (NCTC 11638) using standard microbiological techniques. Metronidazole and amoxicillin were included in these experiments as positive control antibiotics. All the plants demonstrated anti-H. pylori activity with zone diameters of inhibition between 0 and 38 mm and 50% minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC50) values ranging from 0.06 to 5.0 mg/mL. MIC50 values for amoxicillin and metronidazole ranged from 0.001 to 0.63 mg/mL and 0.004 to 5.0 mg/mL respectively. The acetone extracts of C. molle and S. birrea exhibited a remarkable bactericidal activity against H. pylori killing more than 50% of the strains within 18 h at 4× MIC and complete elimination of the organisms within 24 h. Their antimicrobial activity was comparable to the control antibiotics. However, the activity of the ethanol extract of G. kola was lower than amoxicillin (P < 0.05) as opposed to metronidazole (P > 0.05). These results demonstrate that S. birrea, C. molle and G. kola may represent good sources of compounds with anti-H. pylori activity.