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Understanding how community assembly processes drive biodiversity patterns is a central goal of community ecology. While it is generally accepted that ecological communities are assembled by both stochastic and deterministic processes, quantifying their relative importance remains challenging. Few studies have investigated how the relative importance of stochastic and deterministic community assembly processes vary among taxa and along gradients of habitat degradation. Using data on 1,645 arthropod species across seven taxonomic groups in Malaysian Borneo, we quantified the importance of stochastic and deterministic assembly processes across a gradient of logging intensity. Dispersal limitation was the dominant process for most taxa at all levels of logging intensity. The relationship between logging and community assembly varied depending on the specific combination of taxa and stochasticity metric used, but, in general, the processes that govern invertebrate community assembly were remarkably robust to changes in land use intensity.

Elevational patterns of tree diversity are well studied worldwide. However, few studies have examined how seedlings respond to elevational gradients and whether their responses vary across climatic zones. In this study, we established three elevational transects in tropical, subtropical and subalpine mountain forests in Yunnan Province, southern China, to examine the responses of tree species and their seedlings to elevational gradients. Within each transect, we calculated species diversity indices and composition of both adult trees and seedlings at different elevations. For both adult trees and seedlings, we found that species diversity decreased with increasing elevation in both tropical and subalpine transects. Species composition showed significant elevational separation within all three transects. Many species had specific elevational preferences, but abundant tree species that occurred at specific elevations tended to have very limited recruitment in the understory. Our results highlight that the major factors that determine elevational distributions of tree species vary across climatic zones. Specifically, we found that the contribution of air temperature to tree species composition increased from tropical to subalpine transects, whereas the contribution of soil moisture decreased across these transects., Highlights • Species richness and diversity decreased with increasing elevation in tropical and subalpine transects. • Species similarity between adult trees and seedlings decreased with increasing elevation in the tropical transect. • Species similarity between adult trees and seedlings increased with increasing elevation in the subalpine transect. • Effect of temperature on species distribution increased from tropical to subalpine zones. • The effect of soil moisture on species distribution decreased from tropical to subalpine zones. • Abundant tree species at each elevation often had very limited seedlings.

Climatic gradients such as latitude and elevation are considered primary drivers of global biogeography. Yet, alongside these macro-gradients, the vertical space and structure generated by terrestrial plants form comparable climatic gradients but at a fraction of the distance. These vertical gradients provide a spectrum of ecological space for species to occur and co-exist, increasing biodiversity. Further, vertical gradients can serve as pathways for evolutionary adaptation of species traits, leading to a range of ecological specialisations. In this review, we explore the ecological evidence supporting the proposition that the vertical gradient serves as an engine driving the ecology and evolution of species and shaping larger biogeographic patterns in space and time akin to elevation and latitude. Focusing on vertebrate and invertebrate taxa, we synthesised how ecological patterns within the vertical dimension shape species composition, distribution, and biotic interactions. We identify three key ecological mechanisms associated with species traits that facilitate persistence within the vertical environment and draw on empirical examples from the literature to explore these processes. Looking forward, we propose that the vertical dimension provides an excellent study template to explore timely ecological and evolutionary questions. We encourage future research to also consider how the vertical dimension will influence the resilience and response of animal taxa to global change.

The diversity and abundance of native invertebrates is declining globally, which could have significant consequences for ecosystem functioning. Declines are likely to be at least as severe as those observed for vertebrates, although often are difficult to quantify due to a lack of historic baseline data and limited monitoring effort. The Lepidoptera are well studied in Australia compared with other invertebrates, so we know that some species are imperilled or declining. Despite this, few butterfly taxa are explicitly listed for protection by legislation. Here we aim to identify the butterfly taxa that would most benefit from listing by determining the Australian butterflies at most immediate risk of extinction. We also identify the research and management actions needed to retain them. For 26 taxa identified by experts and various conservation schedules, we used structured expert elicitation to estimate the probability of extinction within 20 years (i.e. by 2040) and to identify key threatening processes, priority research and management needs. Collation and analysis of expert opinion indicated that one taxon, the laced fritillary (Argynnis hyperbius inconstans), is particularly imperilled, and that four taxa (Jalmenus eubulus, Jalmenus aridus, Hypochrysops piceatus and Oreisplanus munionga larana) have a moderate–high (>30%) risk of extinction by 2040. Mapped distributions of the 26 butterflies revealed that most are endemic to a single state or territory, and that many occupy narrow ranges. Inappropriate fire regimes, habitat loss and fragmentation (through agricultural practices), invasive species (mostly through habitat degradation caused by weeds and rabbits) and climate change were the most prevalent threats affecting the taxa considered. Increased resourcing and management intervention will be required to prevent these extinctions. We provide specific recommendations for averting such losses.

Global conservation promotes solutions to different dimensions of threat and response: land-use change, climate change, pollution, and so forth. Countering each threat has its band of proponents who advocate for their cause as paramount, increasingly, given limited resources, by downplaying the relative importance of others. Not only does this encourage a compartmentalised view of the world, which is ecologically unsound, it allows politicians and others to cherry-pick responses in light of political expediency or local demands. We should instead aim to achieve win-win conservation strategies that address multiple threats to diversity acting at different timescales, as well as 'horizon threats', which occur at large scales and may be the most challenging conservation issues to address in both the present and the future.

Understanding how assemblages of invertebrates change over continuous elevational gradients not only generates an understanding of current rules of community assembly but may also be useful for predicting the future distributions of species under global change. Temperature decreases predictably with increasing elevation and, accordingly, gradients in elevation permit the study of adjacent climates within small geographical areas. The present study examines if and how assemblages of moths change with increasing elevation in the eastern French Pyrenees. Elevation had a strong effect on the assemblage composition of moth species in both seasons. The species sets which contributed most to this strong pattern differed completely across seasons. Analysis of restrictions and fidelity to particular elevational ranges generated a set of indicator species which can be used to monitor future changes in distribution. Twelve species were identified as elevation-specific indicators (the ‘predictor set’) from the spring samples and summer samples. We note the strong contrasts between species that produce overall statistical pattern and those that show strong fidelity to particular elevations and discuss this in terms of the biologies of the species concerned. We discuss best practice for the identification and use of indicator species for monitoring future responses to climate change.

The structure of ecological networks reflects the evolutionary history of their biotic components, and their dynamics are strongly driven by ecoevolutionary processes. Here, we present an appraisal of recent relevant research, in which the pervasive role of evolution within ecological networks is manifest. Although evolutionary processes are most evident at macroevolutionary scales, they are also important drivers of local network structure and dynamics. We propose components of a blueprint for further research, emphasising process-based models, experimental evolution, and phenotypic variation, across a range of distinct spatial and temporal scales. Evolutionary dimensions are required to advance our understanding of foundational properties of community assembly and to enhance our capability of predicting how networks will respond to impending changes.

It has been estimated that there are seven million terrestrial arthropod species on Earth consisting of 6.1 million species of insects, 1.5 million of which are beetles. Tropical forests hold a majority of these species, yet few such places have been adequately sampled for alpha diversity, and there remains even more uncertainty about beta diversity. From an ecological point of view, it is the functional role of organisms within ecosystems that is the particular focus. It has been customary to classify invertebrates within ecosystems in terms of their trophic roles, but it is also useful to consider their roles in networks. In broad terms, we can classify these networks on the grounds of their basal resources. Those based directly on the photosynthetic products of plants are so-called “green” food webs, and those based on dead and dying plant material are “brown” food webs. Here, we principally discuss the diversity and functional roles of the invertebrates in tropical terrestrial ecosystems. New sampling and analytical techniques, an expanded set of focal taxa, and an enhanced concern with interactions and processes hold the promise of a productive future for invertebrate studies in the tropics. These will not only add to general understanding of the dynamics of tropical ecosystems but will also provide powerful tools for monitoring and responding to environmental change.

Despite progress in recent decades, the conservation management of insects and allied invertebrates in Australia is challenging and remains a formidable task against a background of poor taxonomic and biological knowledge, limited resources (funds and scientific expertise) and a relatively low level of community engagement, education and awareness. In this review, we propose a new, strategic national approach for the conservation of insects and allied invertebrates in Australia to complement and build on existing actions and increase awareness with the general public and government. A review of all species listed under relevant State and Territory Acts, national legislation (EPBC Act) and on international lists (IUCN Red List) indicated that of the 285 species currently listed under these conservation schedules, 10 (3%) are considered extinct, 204 (72%) threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) and 71 (25%) are classified as other (Threatened, Near Threatened, Rare or Least Concern). Comparison of the geographic ranges of listed species in relation to bioregions (IBRA regions) shows a striking discordance in spatial representation across the Australian landscape, reflecting an ad hoc approach to threatened species conservation and the concentration of invertebrate biologists in urban centres of temperate coastal Australia. There is a positive relationship between the number of threatened species and extent of protection according to the National Reserve System within each IBRA region, exemplifying the anomaly in spatial representativeness of listed species. To overcome these shortfalls, we propose a novel educational, regional approach based on selecting, for each of the 89 IBRA regions, a relatively small set of ‘flagship taxa’ (threatened species and/or ‘iconic’ species of high scientific/social value), which are then promoted and/or nominated for listing by the scientific community. Such species could be adopted by local community groups whereby a community‐based regional approach would ensure spatial representativeness of insect conservation across the entire Australian continent. This novel approach may ultimately provide a better strategy for the conservation management of habitats and threatened ecological communities, reducing extinction risk of threatened species and addressing key threatening processes. Members of the Australian entomological community are strongly encouraged to nominate candidate taxa as flagship species for wider promotion and/or listing nationally under the EPBC Act.

Galling insects have the unique ability to control the secondary chemistry of their host plants. Galled plant tissue often has higher concentrations of these secondary compounds compared with surrounding plant material. In this study, we used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy metabolomics techniques to investigate the effect of galls induced by Psephodiplosis rubi Kolesik, on the profiles of secondary metabolites in its two Rubus host plants in subtropical rainforest. We isolated four triterpenoid compounds from both Rubus species. Concentrations of individual triterpenes were not significantly different in galled and non‐galled leaves; however, the concentration of 2‐oxopolomic acid was significantly negatively correlated with gall abundance. At the interspecific level, non‐galled leaves from both Rubus species were chemically indistinguishable in principal component analysis analyses, while galled leaves showed slight chemical differences. Surprisingly, there was very little difference in metabolic profiles of galled and non‐galled leaves at the intraspecific level. Using NMR, we were able to detect slightly different chemical responses in two congeneric host plant species induced by P. rubi galls. We demonstrate how NMR can be used to detect interspecific chemical differences of plants in ecological studies.

Montane birds face significant threats from a warming climate, so determining the environmental factors that most strongly influence the composition of such assemblages is of critical conservation importance. Changes in temperature and other environmental conditions along elevational gradients are known to influence the species richness and abundance of bird assemblages occupying mountains. However, the role of species‐specific traits in mediating the responses of bird species to changing conditions remains poorly understood. We aimed to determine whether different bird species responded differently to changing environmental conditions in a relatively understudied biodiversity hotspot in subtropical rainforest on the east coast of Australia. We examined patterns in avian species richness and abundance along two rainforest elevational gradients using monthly point counts between September 2015 and October 2016. Environmental data on temperature, wetness, canopy cover and canopy height were collected simultaneously, and trait information on body size and feeding guild membership for each bird species was obtained from the Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. We used a generalized linear mixed modelling (GLMM) framework to determine the drivers of species richness and abundance and to quantify species’ trait–environment interactions. GLMMs indicated that temperature alone was significantly positively correlated with species richness and abundance. Species richness declined with increasing elevation. When modelling abundance, we found that feeding guild membership did not significantly affect species’ responses to environmental conditions. In contrast, the predicted abundance of a species was found to depend on its body size, due to significant positive interactions between this trait, temperature and canopy cover. Our findings indicate that large‐bodied birds are likely to increase in abundance more rapidly than small‐bodied birds with continued climatic warming. These results underline the importance of temperature as a driving factor of avian community assembly along environmental gradients.

Climate change is likely to negatively impact populations of rainforest birds along Australia’s eastern seaboard. To this end, accurate estimations of species’ current population sizes are necessary for future monitoring and conservation. Here, we used distance sampling protocols to generate abundance and density estimates for 11 species of birds occupying the Gondwanan rainforests of the Tweed Caldera on the Queensland–New South Wales border. Data were collected along two elevational gradients in subtropical rainforest between September 2015 and October 2016. Half-normal functions with cosine adjustments were used to calculate the density of each species per km 2 . We used a GIS to determine the total area of suitable habitat available in protected areas adjacent to the sampling locations (~425 km 2 ) and then extrapolated the density estimates to generate estimates of population size for each target species in the study area. Estimated population sizes ranged from 473 719 (Yellow-throated Scrubwren Sericornis citreogularis ) to 21 841 (White-throated Treecreeper Cormobates leucophaea ). The standard error (SE) associated with the population estimate of the White-throated Treecreeper was large, as was the SE associated with the Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis (estimated population 235 084), Green Catbird Ailuroedus crassirostris (69 731) and Grey Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa (124 534). Accurate abundance estimates (SE

Aims: Quantifying the relative importance of the mechanisms that drive community assembly in forests is a crucial issue in community ecology. The present study aims to understand the ways in which niche-based and spatially based processes influence community assembly in areas in different climatic conditions and how these processes change during the transition from seedling to adult. Methods: In this study, we investigated how taxonomic and phylogenetic beta diversity in seedling and adult stages of forest trees change across three elevational transects in tropical, subtropical and subalpine forests in Southwest China, and the relationships of these changes to the environment and inter-site distances. We quantified the relative contribution of environmental conditions and spatial distribution to taxonomic and phylogenetic beta diversity of both seedling and adult life stages along each elevational transect. We also quantified the taxonomic and phylogenetic similarity between seedlings and adult trees along elevations. Important Findings: Taxonomic and phylogenetic beta diversity of both seedlings and adult trees increased with an increase in both environmental distance and spatial distance in all three transects. On both taxonomic and phylogenetic levels, the effects of environmental filtering and spatial disposition varied between life stages and among forest types. Phylogenetic similarity between seedlings and adult trees increased with elevation, although the taxonomic similarity did not show clear elevational patterns. Our results suggest that the relative contribution of niche-based and space-based processes to taxonomic and phylogenetic assemblages varies across major plant life stages and among forest types. Our findings also highlight the importance of ontogenetic stages for fully understanding community assembly of long-lived tree species.

Solanum inaequilaterum is a perennial shrub, endemic to the evergreen subtropical rainforest of southern Queensland and northern New South Wales, Australia. An undescribed species of gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) was found to cause numerous round hairy galls on leaves, leaf stalks and stems. The new species is described and named Dasineura inaequilaterae Kolesik sp. nov. It is the first Dasineura known to feed on a host plant from the family Solanaceae worldwide.

Successional processes in forest gaps created by tree falls are often considered a principal mechanism maintaining species diversity within forests. Although insects are important as mediators of forest recovery processes, there have been few observations of how they differ between forest gaps and non-gaps across latitudes. Here we tested the impacts of gap habitat on beetle assemblage composition at three locations spanning sub-tropical and tropical biomes (28°S, 16°S, 5°N: Lamington and Daintree in Australia, and Danum in Borneo). Beetles were collected by flight interception traps and sorted to family and feeding guilds. Despite clear differences in environmental conditions between gaps and non-gaps at all three location, we found weak and inconsistent differences in beetle family and feeding guild composition across a latitudinal gradient. PERMANOVA results showed no significant differences in beetle family and feeding guild composition between gaps and non-gaps. For beetle families, however, the interaction effect (between gap vs. non-gap treatment and location) was significant. Post-hoc analysis and NMDS ordinations showed significant and clear separation of family assemblages between gaps and non-gaps within the Danum samples but not within samples from either the Lamington or Daintree sites. Using IndVal, when all three locations were combined, Chrysomelidae and Tenebrionidae were found to be indicators for gaps and Scarabaeinae and Leiodidae for non-gaps. Analysed separately, gap indicators were only Chrysomelidae at Daintree, whereas non-gap indicators were Scarabaeinae at Lamington, Scarabaeinae, all other Scarabaeidae, Anthicidae, Scydmaeninae, and Hybosoridae at Danum. We suggest the scale of changes in insect composition and richness with the creation of a natural light gap in forests contrast with those resulting from anthropogenic disturbance such as logging and clearing of forests and the greater adaptability of forests to small-scale changes rather than large-scale changes.

An undescribed species of gall midge causing hairy spheroidal leaf galls on Rubus nebulosus and Rubus moorei (Rosaceae) in subtropical Australia was investigated in a study on the dynamics of parasitoids of gall-inducing insects. Here, the gall midge is described and named Psephodiplosis rubi Kolesik, sp. nov. in a new genus Psephodiplosis Kolesik, gen. nov. (supertribe Cecidomyiidi) erected to contain it. The new species is the first described gall midge that induces galls on Rosaceae in Australia. Similar galls have been found previously on Rubus moluccanus in Indonesia and on Rubus alceifolius in Thailand, so it is possible that the geographical range of Psephodiplosis rubi includes not only Australia, but also countries of South East Asia.

1. In tropical Southeast Asia, large-scale establishment of forest plantations has reduced forest diversity and altered arthropod assemblages by changing plant communities and ecological properties. Few studies address the impacts of forest change on important predatory groups on tree trunks. 2. We compared spider assemblages on tree trunks in natural forests and three forest plantation types in the Xishuangbanna area of southwestern China, to determine how tropical forest management influences bark-dwelling spider composition. Spiders were sampled using trunk traps in tropical seasonal rain forests (TSRF), rubber plantations (RP), rubber-tea mixtures (RTM) and Aporosa yunnanensis plantations (AYP). 3. Spider species composition differed between TSRF and forest plantations. Canopy cover in both seasons and grass cover and shrub cover in the dry season well explained species assemblages. Spider diversity between TSRF and forest plantations differed more distinctly in the rainy season. AYP had an intermediate level of disturbance, which was associated with highest species richness, whereas TSRF had the highest beta diversity. The mean number of individuals was the highest in RP, but species richness and beta diversity were the lowest. 4. An intermediate level of disturbance increased alpha diversity of bark-dwelling spiders, whereas intensive management that altered vegetation structure had adverse effects on these spiders. Preservation or enhancement of surface vegetation in RP may maintain or increase species richness of bark-dwelling spiders. The highest beta diversity of the TSRF indicated that undisturbed natural forests better conserved regional spider diversity than plantations.

Here, we reply to the stimulating comments from Sagoff [ 1 ] and Rossberg [ 2 ] on Segar et al. [ 3 ]. Sagoff posits that species assemblages are largely fortuitous and ephemeral, which thwarts opportunities for coevolutionary processes [ 4 ]. Given the dynamic nature of ecological communities, have populations from different interacting species had sufficient time in which to generate selective pressure on each other? As Rossberg points out, in long-lasting and highly intimate bipartite networks, ‘frequent co-occurrence of the two taxa’ is required for evolutionary lockstep between vulnerability (v) and foraging (f) traits. Fitness ‘seascapes’ [ 2 ] stem from constant community turnover: but the adaptive troughs and peaks of the shifting seascape can persist and allow reciprocal evolutionary change if allelic turnover is rapid and selection strong enough. How do we specify ‘frequent co-occurrence’? Since Janzen’s 1985 appraisal of coevolution [ 4 ], Colpoda protozoans have been through over 53 000 generations: resistance to mosquito predators develops in 50 [ 5 ]. We do agree that ecological (nongenetic) fitting is widespread. However, biotic selection within ecological networks does occur, is detectable, and its effects are far from trivial.

The idea that galling insects actively manipulate host plant chemistry has been previously documented but has not been quantified across a range of galler and host plant taxa. We present the first quantitative review of the relationship between insect galling and levels of secondary metabolites in host plants. Using meta-analytic techniques, we examined this relationship across 40 galler and host plant species combinations. We found that galling insects are associated with significantly higher levels of tannins and phenolics; however, no difference was found for volatiles. Hymenoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera were associated with higher levels of secondary metabolites; however, only Hymenoptera was significant. The climatic zone of the study area did not explain significant differences in gall-induced secondary metabolites. Overall the results show that the ability of galling insects to manipulate host plant secondary chemistry is widespread across insect and plant taxa. The evolutionary success of galling insects may be in part due to this unique ability.

Leaf-miners are endophytic insect herbivores that are considered to be relatively host-specific compared with other types of insect herbivores, often depending on one or a few congeneric hosts. Because of their degree of host-specificity, they may be particularly vulnerable to environmental change. Despite this, little is known about the host-plants and life histories of the Australian leaf-mining fauna. Here we present new information on the host-plant use of leaf-miners occurring in Australian subtropical rainforest. We repeatedly hand-collected leaf-miners at 14 sampling sites in the ‘Tweed Caldera’ subtropical rainforest region of south-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales, Australia. Leaf-miners and their host-plants were identified to species (or morphospecies in the case of some leaf-miners). Within the region, a total of 106 plant species was recorded as leaf-miner hosts, on which a total of 12 679 individual leaf-miners was counted, belonging to 50 different species. We measured the local host-plant range of each leaf-miner species for which we had reliable incidence records across sampling sites (24 species). Local host-specificity was relatively high with 66.7 % of species recorded from a single or two congeneric host-plants. 16.7 % of species were restricted to a single plant family and 16.7 % were recorded on a few to several plants of the same plant order or across a range of unrelated host-plants.

To monitor assemblages of animals, ecologists need effective methods for detecting and recording the distributions of species within target areas in restricted periods of time. In this study, we compared the effectiveness of a traditional avian biodiversity assessment technique (point counts) with a relatively new method (automated acoustic recordings) along an elevational gradient in rainforest in central Queensland, Australia. On average, point counts detected more species than acoustic recordings of an equivalent length of time (n = 40, P =

Leaf miners are specialist herbivorous insects that are potentially vulnerable to environmental change because of their dependency on particular host plants. Little, however, is known about how climate affects the distribution of leaf miner communities and their interactions with host plants. Elevational gradients are useful tools for understanding how ecological communities respond to local clines in climate. Given that plant communities are known to undergo elevational turnover in response to changes in climatic conditions, we expect that leaf miner species will also change with elevation. We repeatedly hand collected leaf miners along three elevational gradients in subtropical rainforest in eastern Australia. Individual leaf miners were counted and identified to species, and their host plants were recorded. We tested if leaf miner species richness and the number of unique interactions among leaf miner and host plant species were affected by elevation. We also tested if the composition of leaf miner species and the composition of interactions between leaf miners and host plants showed a relationship with elevation. The rarefied number of unique leaf miner–host plant interactions significantly decreased with elevation, with a slight peak at approx. 700 m a.s.l., while neither rarefied or observed species richness (species density) of leaf miners nor observed numbers of unique interactions (interaction density) were significantly affected by elevation. The composition of leaf miner species and the composition of leaf miner–host plant interactions (occurrence of pairwise interactions) were significantly related to elevation. Elevational turnover in leaf miner species composition indicated that different species varied in their response to changes in biotic and/or abiotic conditions imposed by increasing elevation. Through our analyses, we identified four leaf miner species that may be locally vulnerable to climate change, as a result of their restricted elevational distribution and level of host specificity.

Woody climbers or, 'lianas', are one of the features that characterise rainforests. They contribute substantially to plant diversity and leaf biomass which makes them a potentially important food source for herbivores. Here, we focus on insect herbivores, folivores in particular, to show how disparities in the quantitative and qualitative availability of leaves between lianas and trees may differentially influence insect folivory and the herbivore communities themselves. We develop a conceptual model and show that lianas in general have lower structural and chemical defences, a greater nutritional profile and a preferable phenology in comparison with trees, which, contrary to our expectations, has led to assemblages of more-specialised insects. The impacts this has on higher trophic levels and broader ecological networks, however, are poorly known. We show through a study of four tropical floras from different biogeographic realms that lianas are likely to be a target for a wide range of insect herbivore taxa as they are a phylogenetically diverse group and increase diversity of higher taxa at local scales. This, in combination with their highly palatable leaves, may also make them a suitable temporary food source for insects during times when preferred host plants are scarce. This phenomenon has been observed in mammalian herbivores but awaits investigation in insects as does the effects this may have on survival and fitness. Apparent recent increases in liana abundances in some forests, likely due to climate change, makes understanding their role in supporting and maintaining biodiversity an increasingly important and necessary challenge. Since trees or saplings have usually been the subject of studies on insect herbivory, major knowledge gaps remain about the ways in which lianas contribute to, support and maintain the ecosystems in which they exist. We use our conceptual model to guide future research directions and express the necessity for caution when extrapolating explanations of herbivory derived from data on trees to growth forms with fundamentally different ecologies.

Aim There is little consensus as to whether stratification of arthropods between canopy and understorey in tropical and subtropical forests is commonplace and if the magnitude of stratification changes across different elevations and latitudes. We investigated broad-scale patterns of vertical stratification of moths collected from extensive cross-continental fieldwork in a variety of forest types, climates, elevations, latitudes and areas with differing biogeographical history.n Location Tropical and subtropical rain forest in eastern Australia; tropical, subtropical and subalpine forest in Yunnan Province, China; and tropical rain forest in Panama, Vietnam, Brunei and Papua New Guinea.n Methods Night-flying moths were trapped from the upper canopy and understorey. We generated a total of 64 data sets to quantify vertical stratification of moths in terms of their species richness, using coverage-based rarefaction, and assemblage composition, using standardized hierarchical beta diversity. Based on the average temperature lapse rate, we incorporated latitudinal differences into elevation and generated 'corrected' elevation for each location, and analysed its relationships with the magnitude of stratification.n Results We found consistent differences between canopy and understorey assemblages at almost all rain forest locations across corrected elevational gradients. The magnitude of vertical stratification in species richness did not change with increasing corrected elevation. In contrast, the difference in assemblage composition increased with increasing corrected elevation in the Northern Hemisphere, while the opposite, albeit weak, trend was found in the Southern Hemisphere.n Main conclusions Clear vertical stratification was evident in moth assemblages regardless of elevation and latitude. However, the degree to which assemblages are stratified between canopy and understorey is not uniformly related to elevation and latitude. Inconsistencies in the magnitude of vertical stratification between the Northern and Southern Hemisphere, may reflect, on one hand, deep-time biogeographical differences between the land masses studied and, on the other, place-to-place differences in resource availability underpinning the observed moth assemblages.

Altitudinal gradients are an excellent study tool to help understand the mechanisms shaping community assembly. We established a series of altitudinal gradients along the east coast of Australia to describe how the distribution of a hyper-diverse herbivore group (night-flying Lepidoptera) changes across an environmental gradient in subtropical and tropical rainforests. Two transects were in subtropical rainforest in the same bioregion, one in south-east Queensland (28.7 degrees S) and one in north east New South Wales (29.7 degrees S). Two were in tropical rainforest, one in mid-east Queensland (21.1 degrees S) and one in the Wet Tropics of northern Queensland (17.5 degrees S). Replicate plots were established in altitudinal bands separated by 200m. Canopy and understorey moths were sampled at the beginning and end of the wet season using automatic Pennsylvania light traps. We sorted a total of 93400 individuals, belonging to 3035 species. The two subtropical transects in the same region showed similar patterns of turnover across altitude, with the most distinctive assemblage occurring at the highest altitude. Moth assemblages in the tropical transects tended to show distinct lowland' and upland' communities. For species that were common across several of the transects, many were found at lower altitudes in the subtropics and higher altitudes in the tropics, suggesting they are sensitive to environmental conditions, and track their physiological envelopes across latitudes. These results suggest ubiquitous altitudinal stratification in tropical and subtropical Australian rainforests. The marked response of species to latitude and altitude demonstrates they are sensitive to climatic variables and can be used as indicators to understand future community responses to climate change.

This study investigated proteomic changes occurring in Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles stephensi during adult mosquito aging. These changes were evaluated using two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) and the identities of aging related proteins were determined using capillary high-pressure liquid chromatography (capHPLC) coupled with a linear ion-trap (LTQ)-Orbitrap XL hybrid mass spectrometry (MS). Here, we have described the techniques used to determine age associated proteomic changes occurring in heads and thoraces across three age groups; 1, 9 and 17 d old A. gambiae and 4 age groups; 1, 9, 17 and 34 d old A. stephensi. We have provided normalised spot volume raw data for all protein spots that were visible on 2D-DIGE images for both species and processed Orbitrap mass spectrometry data. For public access, mass spectrometry raw data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD002153. A detailed description of this study has been described elsewhere [1].

Parasitoids play an important role in ecosystem functioning through their influence on herbivorous insect populations. Theoretical and experimental evidence suggest that increased species richness can enhance and stabilize ecosystem function. It is important to understand how richness-driven functional relationships change across environmental gradients. We investigated how temperature affected the relationship between parasitoid richness and parasitism rate in a guild of gall-parasitoids along an elevational gradient. We collected galls at 15 sites along five elevational gradients (between 762 m and 1145 m asl) on six occasions over a year. A total of 1902 insects, including 1593 parasitoids, were reared from 12 402 galls. Parasitism rate increased significantly with temperature on all sampling occasions, except December and February. We found a significant, positive richness–parasitism relationship. This relationship, however, was weaker at higher elevations which may be linked to decreased functional efficiency of parasitoids at lower temperatures. Temporal variability in parasitism rate and parasitoid richness were significantly related, regardless of temperature. A stable functional guild of this kind may provide a more reliable ecosystem service under environmental changes.

Elevational gradients are powerful natural experiments for the investigation of ecological responses to changing climates. Automated modified Pennsylvania light traps were used to sample macro-moth assemblages for three consecutive nights at each of 24 sites ranging from 200 m asl to 1200 m asl within continuous tropical rainforest at Eungella, Queensland, Australia (21°S, 148°E). A total of 13 861 individual moths representing approximately 713 morphospecies and 10 045 individuals belonging to approximately 607 morphospecies where sampled during November 2013 and March 2014 respectively. Moth assemblages exhibited a strong elevational signal during both sampling seasons; we grouped these into lowland and upland assemblages. The dispersal pattern of moth assemblages across the landscape reflected the stratification of vegetation communities across elevation and correlated with shifts in eco-physical variables, most notably temperature and substrate organic matter. Regional historical biogeographical events likely contributed to the observed patterns. The analysis presented here identifies a set of statistically defined elevationally restricted moths which may be of use as part of a multi-taxon predictor set for monitoring future ecosystem level changes associated with elevation and, by implication, with climate.

Color lightness of insects is an important ecological trait affecting their performance through multiple functions such as thermoregulation, UV protection and disease resistance. The geographical pattern of color lightness in diurnal insects are relatively well understood and largely driven by thermal melanism through the enhancement of insect activity. In nocturnal insects, however, the ecological function of color lightness in response to climatic factors is poorly understood, particularly at small spatial scales. In this study, we investigated color lightness of nocturnal moth assemblages along environmental gradients. Using geometrid moths collected with comparable methodologies (light trapping), we examined assemblage-level changes in color lightness across elevational gradients and vertical strata (canopy vs understory) across three climatically different locations in Yunnan, China. The results showed that moths are darker in color at higher elevations. Such patterns are most apparent in canopy assemblages. In addition, the strength of the elevational pattern on color lightness varied across location, being most pronounced in the canopy of the subalpine site. These patterns are likely driven by UV protection and/or thermoregulation. Our study highlights the importance of abiotic factors such as temperature and solar radiation in structuring morphological patterns of nocturnal ectothermic assemblages along elevational gradients of climatically harsh environments.

AIMS: We aim to document elevational richness patterns of geometrid moths in a globally replicated, multi-gradient setting, and to test general hypotheses on environmental and spatial effects (i.e. productivity, temperature, precipitation, area, mid-domain effect and human habitat disturbance) on these richness patterns. LOCATION: Twenty-six elevational gradients world-wide (latitudes 28° S to 51° N). METHODS: We compiled field datasets on elevational gradients for geometrid moths, a lepidopteran family, and documented richness patterns across each gradient while accounting for local undersampling of richness. Environmental and spatial predictor variables as well as habitat disturbance were used to test various hypotheses. Our analyses comprised two pathways: univariate correlations within gradients, and multivariate modelling on pooled data after correcting for overall variation in richness among different gradients. RESULTS: The majority of gradients showed midpeak patterns of richness, irrespective of climate and geographical location. The exclusion of human-affected sampling plots did not change these patterns. Support for univariate main drivers of richness was generally low, although there was idiosyncratic support for particular predictors on single gradients. Multivariate models, in agreement with univariate results, provided the strongest support for an effect of area-integrated productivity, or alternatively for an elevational area effect. Temperature and the mid-domain effect received support as weaker, modulating covariates, while precipitation-related variables had no explanatory potential. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Despite the predicted decreasing diversity–temperature relationship in ectotherms, geometrid moths are similar to ants and salamanders as well as small mammals and ferns in having predominantly their highest diversity at mid-elevations. As in those comparative analyses, single or clear sets of drivers are elusive, but both productivity and area appear to be influential. More comparative elevational studies for various insect taxa are necessary for a more comprehensive understanding of elevational diversity and productivity.

Forest canopies are dynamic interfaces between organisms and atmosphere, providing buffered microclimates and complex microhabitats. Canopies form vertically stratified ecosystems interconnected with other strata. Some forest biodiversity patterns and food webs have been documented and measurements of ecophysiology and biogeochemical cycling have allowed analyses of large-scale transfer of CO2, water, and trace gases between forests and the atmosphere. However, many knowledge gaps remain. With global research networks and databases, and new technologies and infrastructure, we envisage rapid advances in our understanding of the mechanisms that drive the spatial and temporal dynamics of forests and their canopies. Such understanding is vital for the successful management and conservation of global forests and the ecosystem services they provide to the world.

Gradients in elevation are increasingly used to investigate how species respond to changes in local climatic conditions. Whilst many studies have shown elevational patterns in species richness and turnover, little is known about how food web structure is affected by elevation. Contrasting responses of predator and prey species to elevation may lead to changes in food web structure. We investigated how the quantitative structure of a herbivore-parasitoid food web changes with elevation in an Australian subtropical rain forest. On four occasions, spread over 1 year, we hand-collected leaf miners at twelve sites, along three elevational gradients (between 493 m and 1159 m a.s.l). A total of 5030 insects, including 603 parasitoids, were reared, and summary food webs were created for each site. We also carried out a replicated manipulative experiment by translocating an abundant leaf-mining weevil Platynotocis sp., which largely escaped parasitism at high elevations (≥ 900 m a.s.l.), to lower, warmer elevations, to test if it would experience higher parasitism pressure. We found strong evidence that the environmental change that occurs with increasing elevation affects food web structure. Quantitative measures of generality, vulnerability and interaction evenness decreased significantly with increasing elevation (and decreasing temperature), whilst elevation did not have a significant effect on connectance. Mined plant composition also had a significant effect on generality and vulnerability, but not on interaction evenness. Several relatively abundant species of leaf miner appeared to escape parasitism at higher elevations, but contrary to our prediction, Platynotocis sp. did not experience greater levels of parasitism when translocated to lower elevations. Our study indicates that leaf-mining herbivores and their parasitoids respond differently to environmental conditions imposed by elevation, thus producing structural changes in their food webs. Increasing temperatures and changes in vegetation communities that are likely to result from climate change may have a restructuring effect on host-parasitoid food webs. Our translocation experiment, however, indicated that leaf miners currently escaping parasitism at high elevations may not automatically experience higher parasitism under warmer conditions and future changes in food web structure may depend on the ability of parasitoids to adapt to novel hosts.

Soil type may drive vegetation structure. In turn, the richness, identity and diversity of arthropod herbivores may be related to plant diversity through specific host plant relationships in a location. We test the hypothesis that the soil type (calcicolous vs alluvial soils) will drive the assemblage structure of a dominant group of arthropod herbivores: the moths. We used sampling sites in rain-forest fragments in south-western China around the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Gardens (21°41′N, 101°25′E) to test this hypothesis. We used Pennsylvania style light traps to take point samples of macromoths and pyraloids from four sampling sites in forest remnants on a limestone geological base and four from alluvial-based forest. A total of 3165 moths (1739 from limestone-based and 1255 from alluvium-based forests) was collected representing 1255 species. The limestone-based sites showed statistically similar levels of species richness and other alpha diversity indices to the four alluvium-based site. Nevertheless the sites were clearly significantly different in terms of species composition. Analysis of contrasting similarity (‘beta’ diversity) indices suggested that there was ‘leakage’ between the two classes of sites when ‘rare’ species were emphasized in the calculations. We used an indicator value procedure to select species that most characterized this separation. We expect that these differences reflect associated changes in plant assemblage structure acting through the herbivorous habits of larval moths. Accordingly, in any assessment of landscape level diversity the nature of the substrate and its associated vegetation is clearly of great importance. This observation also has consequences for the design of conservation programmes.

In this paper we record a likely instance of ovo-viviparity in a chlorocyphid damselfly from south-western China. If confirmed, this will be the first record of live birthing in the Odonata: indeed in any member of the Palaeoptera. The widespread Asian damselfly Heliocypha perforata (Percheron, 1835) is proposed to be, at least facultatively, viviparous. A female was observed and filmed appearing to deposit pro-larvae directly onto the exposed surface of a half-submerged branch in a small stream in Xishuangbanna Autonomous Dai Prefecture, Yunnan, China. The species is known to deposit eggs in bark crevices close to water but no previous case of actual live births is known.

As a contribution to accurate estimation of arthropod alpha and beta diversities in tropical forests, we present results of some of the largest moth samples ever collected in the Malaysian region. To estimate alpha diversity, light traps were run at three geographically distinct locations. We generated individual-based and coverage-based rarefaction curves to estimate sampling sufficiency and alpha diversity of the locations. Despite a large number of moths collected (67282 individuals, from three locations), none of the rarefaction curves reached asymptote. The species accumulation curves based on the Chao1 richness estimator at each location suggested that, even when sampling yielded over 30000 individuals, Chao1 could not reliably estimate the observed number of species. In one of the three locations, moths were collected systematically by light traps in 1979-1980 and 2000-2001. Despite over 160 trapping nights and 16500 individuals collected in total, the estimated total number of species (2262) was well below the general collection conducted at the same location over a 35-year period [3921 species (1975-2013)]. Beta diversity was investigated using the samples collected at one location on two occasions over a 20-year period. The faunal composition has changed over the 20-year period, possibly as a result of extensive land-use change around the study location. We estimated the minimum sampling effort required to detect such changes by calculating type II errors. Unlike alpha diversity estimation, we found that only four replicate samples, each with only two trapping nights, would be sufficient to reliably detect changes in assemblage composition.

Patterns of species assemblages along altitudinal gradients provide insights into ecological patterns and processes. Parasitoids play an important role in ecosystems, yet there are few studies on parasitoid assemblages, partly because of difficulty in identification of parasitoids to species or their surrogates, morphospecies. The aim of this study is to assess differences in assemblages of parasitic Hymenoptera along an altitudinal gradient at both the family and morphospecies level, and the potential of environmental variables for explaining these differences. We sampled from four replicate sites at each of five elevations (approximately 300, 500, 700, 900 and 1100m above sea level (asl)) within continuous subtropical rainforest of the Border Ranges National Park in New South Wales, Australia. At each site, we operated a Malaise trap for 10 days in December 2011 and again in February 2012. Parasitic wasps were sorted to families, and two of the common families (Diapriidae and Ichneumonidae) were further sorted to morphospecies. At both family and morphospecies level, we found gradual altitudinal turnover with a clear separation between upland' (900 and 1100masl) and lowland' (300 and 500masl) assemblages. Unlike parallel studies of some other major taxa, we did not detect distinct assemblages at each altitude at the taxonomic resolution used. In addition, response patterns were different between the two sampling occasions. Changes in assemblage composition were best explained by either altitude or temperature. Although parasitic Hymenoptera do not respond as clearly to changes in altitude as some other taxa, the changes detected here, even at the family level, are important given the role parasitoids play in ecosystem functioning.

Although elevational gradients of biodiversity have long been the topic of scientific research, information on patterns of, and processes that shape insect community structure across elevation is still lacking. Addressing this gap requires the use of both taxonomic and functional approaches when studying diversity across elevational gradients. In this study, we examined taxonomic and functional alpha and beta diversity of ant assemblages sampled along tropical, subtropical, and subalpine elevational transects in Yunnan Province, southwest China. Species richness was used to quantify taxonomic alpha diversity, and two indices (FD and FRic) were calculated using morphological measurements to quantify functional alpha diversity. Taxonomic and functional beta diversity were partitioned into their turnover- and nestedness-resultant components. Though temperature and functional alpha diversity decreased linearly with increasing elevation, taxonomic alpha diversity showed a significant logarithmic decrease, with few species present at elevations greater than 3000 m a.s.l. The turnover-resultant component of taxonomic beta diversity increased with increasing elevational distance, while the nestedness-resultant component of functional beta diversity increased with increasing elevational distance in the subtropical transect. The observed patterns of taxonomic and functional diversity reflected ants&rsquo, thermophilic nature, implying functional adaptations (i.e., nested functional diversity) at higher elevations where environmental conditions were unfavorable.

Summary Assessment of habitat restoration requires baseline information on the communities present in both converted and intact forms of the focal ecosystem to enable comparisons with restored sites. Ants and beetles are commonly used in ecological monitoring programmes, as they display assemblage-level responses to habitat change and can be a more direct measure of the recommencement of some ecosystem functions than the presence of more obvious biota such as plants. However, as these taxa differ substantially in ecological traits, their response patterns and utility as potential bioindicators may vary. Using pitfall traps, we compared assemblages of ant and beetle species between two reference habitats, pasture and remnant rainforest in subtropical eastern Australia. The assemblage composition of both groups differed significantly between rainforest and pasture but only beetles showed accompanying differences in species richness and abundance, which were both significantly lower in pasture. We identified ant and beetle species characteristic of either pasture or rainforest remnants, which may be used as bioindicators in future monitoring programmes. These species, however, displayed patchy distributions, suggesting that the use of individual species as bioindicators is likely to be unreliable. These findings support the use of ‘composite habitat indices’, which combine information from sets of indicator species. Given that patterns of change in species composition were similar between ants and beetles, either is an appropriate focal taxon for future monitoring programmes. Beetles, however, displayed some limitations as no species were indicative of the disturbed pasture habitat. Ants and beetles are likely to respond in different ways to different aspects of habitat change; thus, using both together could strengthen assessments of rainforest degradation or recovery.

Selective logging is practiced extensively within tropical rainforests of south-east Asia, and its impact on local biodiversity is well documented. Little is known, however, about the impact of selective logging on patterns of spatial heterogeneity of species. We set out to test the hypothesis that selective logging will lead to a homogenization of the associated faunal assemblages, using moths (Lepidoptera) as our subject taxa. Large-scale transects were established within primary and post-logging lowland mixed dipterocarp rainforests around the Danum Valley Conservation Area and surroundings, Sabah, Malaysia (4൰'N-5ర'N and 117೵'E-117വ'E). Five study sites were located within each habitat with geometrically increasing inter-site distances. Macro-moths plus Pyraloidea were sampled by light trapping in 2007 and 2008. Vegetation state was also measured at each site. A clear distance-decay relationship (decreasing assemblage similarity with increasing geographic distances) was observed in primary forest but was absent in the post-logging forest. Large, comparable numbers of macro-moth species were found in both primary and post-logging forests. There were no significant differences in moth assemblage composition between primary and post-logging forests. There are important structural differences between primary and post-logging forests reflected in the moth assemblages. A two-stage hypothesis combining both neutral and niche concepts is probably the most parsimonious explanation of these results. First, the composition of the moth assemblage is almost certainly determined locally by the variety of plant-hosts available to larvae, with the plants representing important niche dimensions for the moth species. Second the turnover (or lack of same) in the underlying plant assemblage probably reflects clumping and, in turn, dispersal capacity of the commoner plants in each forest type. Although the impact of selective logging may be subtle, this study suggests that selective logging results in the spatial homogenization of macro-moth assemblages.

The study of interacting sets of species within ecosystems – community ecology – is generally less familiar to entomologists than the more species-centric studies of population and behavioural ecology. Here, I review some key areas of community ecology that should be of interest and concern to entomologists. The contrasting current models of community assembly – based, on the one hand, on ideas of neutral replacement and, on the other, of resource-based niche partitioning – are discussed. A synthetic version that identifies a stochastic/deterministic switch point based on a characteristic spatial scale for each community studied is presented as a possible way of combining these two approaches.

Springtails are one of the most abundant groups of arthropods inhabiting soil and litter substrates within rainforest ecosystems, making significant contributions to ecological processes such as decomposition. The aim of this study is to assess the potential sensitivity of springtail assemblages to climate change by presenting some of the first data on the elevation stratification of springtail assemblages in subtropical rainforest. A standardised sampling protocol was used to compare the assemblages of families and species of springtails living within leaf-litter at three elevations in continuous rainforest in south-east Queensland, Australia. Leaf-litter was collected and springtails extracted from four replicate plots at approximately 700, 900 and 1100 m a.s.l. on two sampling occasions (January 2008 and December 2008). Environment variables (elevation of plots, tree species richness, composition and basal area, soil temperature and moisture and a range of physical and chemical properties of the soil) that may correlate with springtail distributions were incorporated into the analyses. Springtail assemblages showed clear elevation patterns, despite some differences between the two sampling occasions. Springtail assemblages characteristic of different elevations particularly when examined at a finer taxonomic resolution (species compared with family-level identification) were identified. Plot elevation (m a.s.l.) correlated most strongly with patterns in springtail species assemblages, but was also highly correlated with several other environmental factors. The results indicate that springtails, as a group, respond strongly to the physico-chemical and/or biological changes that occur with increasing elevation, even over a relatively small elevation range, demonstrating that they have potential as monitoring targets as forests experience climate change.

South-western China is widely acknowledged as a biodiversity ‘hotspot’: there are high levels of diversity and endemism and many environments are under significant anthropogenic threats not least climate warming. Here, we explore diversity and compare response patterns of moth assemblages among three elevational gradients established within different climatic bioregions - tropical rain forest, sub-tropical evergreen broad-leaved forest and sub-alpine coniferous forest in Yunnan Province, China. We hypothesised that tropical assemblages would be more elevationally stratified than temperate assemblages and tropical species would be more elevationally restricted than those in the temperate zone. Contrary to our hypothesis, the moth fauna was more sensitive to elevational differences within the temperate transect, followed by sub-tropical and tropical transects. Moths in the cooler and more seasonal temperate sub-alpine gradient showed stronger elevation-decay beta diversity patterns and more species were restricted to particular elevational ranges. Our study suggests that moth assemblages are under threat from future climate change and sub-alpine rather than tropical faunas may be the most sensitive to climate change. These results improve our understanding of China’s biodiversity and can be used to monitor future changes to herbivore assemblages in a ‘hotspot’ of biodiversity.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd/CNRS. We introduce a novel framework for conceptualising, quantifying and unifying discordant patterns of species richness along geographical gradients. While not itself explicitly mechanistic, this approach offers a path towards understanding mechanisms. In this study, we focused on the diverse patterns of species richness on mountainsides. We conjectured that elevational range midpoints of species may be drawn towards a single midpoint attractor - a unimodal gradient of environmental favourability. The midpoint attractor interacts with geometric constraints imposed by sea level and the mountaintop to produce taxon-specific patterns of species richness. We developed a Bayesian simulation model to estimate the location and strength of the midpoint attractor from species occurrence data sampled along mountainsides. We also constructed midpoint predictor models to test whether environmental variables could directly account for the observed patterns of species range midpoints. We challenged these models with 16 elevational data sets, comprising 4500 species of insects, vertebrates and plants. The midpoint predictor models generally failed to predict the pattern of species midpoints. In contrast, the midpoint attractor model closely reproduced empirical spatial patterns of species richness and range midpoints. Gradients of environmental favourability, subject to geometric constraints, may parsimoniously account for elevational and other patterns of species richness.

The host specificity of insects on plants and the resulting insect assemblages characteristic of certain plants are well documented. The majority of studies relate to phytophagous insects and their specialisation on particular host plants. Less documented, however, is the specificity of predatory insects to plant hosts. Contrasting sets of beetle taxa (phytophagous Chrysomelidae and Curculionoidea, and predatory Coccinellidae) occurring on plants from selected Myrtaceae and Fabaceae were compared. Characteristic assemblages were identified on the host plants. Taxonomically related plants shared similar beetle assemblages. In contrast, taxonomically related beetles did not share similar host-plant preferences. The host specificity of predatory beetles (coccinellids) was as great as that of the phytophagous taxa.