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Este Trabajo de Fin de Grado se centra en la Ayuda Oficial al Desarrollo (AOD), abordando su historia, definición y comparativa en un contexto internacional, especialmente entre los países del Comité de Ayuda al Desarrollo (CAD) y Alemania, durante el período 2000-2020. Se explora el origen histórico de la AOD, destacando sus inicios tras la II Guerra Mundial y su evolución como un mecanismo esencial para promover el desarrollo económico y social a nivel global. Este análisis histórico ayuda a entender el surgimiento y la transformación de la AOD a lo largo de las décadas, y cómo ha sido influenciada por diferentes contextos políticos y económicos. En el estudio se define la AOD, especificando sus principales características y los criterios que deben cumplir los flujos de ayuda para ser considerados como tales. Se destaca la importancia de la AOD como herramienta para la cooperación internacional y su rol en la reducción de la pobreza y la promoción del desarrollo sostenible en los países receptores. Por último, se realiza una comparación de la AOD entre los países miembros del CAD y Alemania, durante el período 2000-2020. Esta comparativa permite identificar una serie de características en la evolución de la ayuda, así como en la distribución de los recursos. Se ha prestado especial atención a la forma en que diferentes países han priorizado ciertos sectores y regiones en sus políticas de ayuda, Grado en Marketing e Investigación de Mercados

p-Coumaroyl-6́-secologanoside (comselogoside) is a secoiridoid identified in large amounts in olive fruits, although no studies in vitro or in vivo of comselogoside have been reported. This work focuses on the recovery and purification of this compound from olive mill waste (alperujo). The successive isolation on Amberlite XAD-16 and Sephadex LH-20 resins, allowed a comselogoside extract with 80–85% of purity. A photoisomerization of the vinyl-double bond in the p-coumaroyl moiety occurred when the extract was exposed to ultraviolet radiation and a mixture of the trans and cis-isomers was obtained. Both isomers were characterized using NMR, mass spectroscopy, and UV spectrometry. The J (coupling constant) of the protons on the C7 and C8 on the unsaturated chain were found to be the difference between cis (12.8 Hz) and trans- (15.9 Hz) comselogoside. Cis-isomer exhibited lower radical-scavenging activity than trans, although a synergistic effect occurred when the cis-isomer was supplement by the trans-isomer.

Unlike oliv e orchards intended fo r oliv e oil, th e pr odu ction of tabl e olives in na rro w hedgerow s is very recent an d th e info rmation avai lable abou t this cropping sy ste m is ye t very scarce . In this work , we studie d fo r th e firs t time in tabl e oliv e hedgerow s (3.75m x 1.35m, N - S or iented) of Ma nzanill a de Sevill a an d Ma nzanill a Ca cereñ a cu lti - vars , th e di str i b ution within th e canopy of yiel d co mponent s an d phys ica l -chemical frui t qualit y traits in re - sponse to th e incident irradiance . Hedgerow canopies were divide d into four position s on each side (Eas t an d West ) accordin g to height abov eground : 0. 5 –1.0m , 1. 0 –1.5m , 1. 5 –2.0m , 2. 0 –2.5m , an d an additional to p canopy position (> 2.5m ) integrated fo r both sides. Tota l pr odu ction , nu mbe r of fruits an d size di str i b ution were recorded fo r each position an d th e fo llo win g frui t traits were assessed : fres h weight , length , equato ria l diam eter, pulp -to -pi t ratio, colo r index, brui sin g pe rcentage, oi l co ntent , wate r co ntent , tota l su gar s an d tota l ph enols . Indi - vi dua l ph enoli c co mpounds were also quantified . Th e incident irradiance at each position wa s ca lculate d over th e frui t growth period usin g a mode l base d on hedgerow parameters , resultin g in a po s itive gr adien t from base to to p canopy positions. Fo r both cu ltivars , yiel d co mponent s an d most qualit y traits were po s itively affected by incident irradiance as they fo llowe d a si m ila r tren d showin g larger mean va lue s with increa sin g canopy heights. Co nversely, th e tota l co ntent s in suga r an d ph enols an d indivi dua l ph enoli c co mpounds were no t affected by th e canopy positions. No remarkable di ffe rence s betwee n East an d West side s of th e hedgerow were observed .

p-Coumaroyl-6́-secologanoside (comselogoside) is a secoiridoid identified in large amounts in olive fruits, although no studies in vitro or in vivo of comselogoside have been reported. This work focuses on the recovery and purification of this compound from olive mill waste (alperujo). The successive isolation on Amberlite XAD-16 and Sephadex LH-20 resins, allowed a comselogoside extract with 80-85% of purity. A photoisomerization of the vinyl-double bond in the p-coumaroyl moiety occurred when the extract was exposed to ultraviolet radiation and a mixture of the trans and cis-isomers was obtained. Both isomers were characterized using NMR, mass spectroscopy, and UV spectrometry. The J (coupling constant) of the protons on the C7 and C8 on the unsaturated chain were found to be the difference between cis (12.8 Hz) and trans- (15.9 Hz) comselogoside. Cis-isomer exhibited lower radical-scavenging activity than trans, although a synergistic effect occurred when the cis-isomer was supplement by the trans-isomer.

Unlike olive orchards intended for olive oil, the production of table olives in narrow hedgerows is very recent and the information available about this cropping system is yet very scarce. In this work, we studied for the first time in table olive hedgerows (3.75m x 1.35m, N-S oriented) of Manzanilla de Sevilla and Manzanilla Cacereña cultivars, the distribution within the canopy of yield components and physical-chemical fruit quality traits in response to the incident irradiance. Hedgerow canopies were divided into four positions on each side (East and West) according to height aboveground: 0.5–1.0m, 1.0–1.5m, 1.5–2.0m, 2.0–2.5m, and an additional top canopy position (> 2.5m) integrated for both sides. Total production, number of fruits and size distribution were recorded for each position and the following fruit traits were assessed: fresh weight, length, equatorial diameter, pulp-to-pit ratio, color index, bruising percentage, oil content, water content, total sugars and total phenols. Individual phenolic compounds were also quantified. The incident irradiance at each position was calculated over the fruit growth period using a model based on hedgerow parameters, resulting in a positive gradient from base to top canopy positions. For both cultivars, yield components and most quality traits were positively affected by incident irradiance as they followed a similar trend showing larger mean values with increasing canopy heights. Conversely, the total contents in sugar and phenols and individual phenolic compounds were not affected by the canopy positions. No remarkable differences between East and West sides of the hedgerow were observed.

The pectin from the cell walls of olive waste (alperujo) and apple, orange and strawberry fruits was extracted using choline chloride (ChCl) and the yield and chemical and structural compositions were compared to pectin extracted using citric acid (CA) and ammonium oxalate/oxalic acid (AOOA). According to the results, the alperujo pectin extracted using ChCl from alcohol-insoluble residue (AIR) showed a higher yield (2.20–2.88% on the basis of dry weight of AIR) than using CA (0.65–1.22%) but lower than using AOOA (3.92–5.42%). For fruit pectin, the highest yield was obtained using CA (8.81–16%), followed by AOOA (5.4–6.63%), although for apple pectin, ChCl gave a similar yield (5.36%) to AOOA. The uronic acid contents in all ChCl pectins (45.9–70.6% dry basis AIR) were higher or similar to that of the other extracting agents (30.6–65.2%), although a lower level of neutral sugar side chains was detected, with a lower degree of branching and degree of methylation. The NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy of the pectin isolated using ChCl confirmed its slightly different structural composition with respect to CA and AOOA pectin. Therefore, depending on the source material and functionality, pectin isolated using ChCl could be an acid-free alternative to pectin production.

The olive oil sector is continuously evolving in order to improve the quality of olive oil and its by-products. In fact, the trend is to use increasingly greener olives to improve quality by decreasing the extraction yield, thus obtaining a higher content of antioxidant phenolics. The application of a cold-pressing system to the olive before the extraction of oil was tested with three varieties: picual at three different stages of maturity and arbequina and hojiblanca at early stages of maturity. The Abencor system was used for the extraction of virgin olive oil and its by-products. For the quantification of phenols and total sugars for all phases, organic solvent extractions and colorimetric measurements and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a UV detector were used. The results show that the new treatment significantly improved the amount of oil extracted by between 1 and 2% and even increased its concentration of total phenols by up to 33%. Regarding the by-products, the concentrations of the main phenols, such as hydroxytyrosol, increased by almost 50%, as did the glycoside. The treatment also facilitated the separation of phases in by-products and improved the phenolic profile, although not in terms of total phenols, but individual phenols with higher antioxidant activity were obtained.