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Purpose To describe and characterize fast-kV switching, dual-energy (DE) imaging implemented within the on-board imager of a commercial linear accelerator for markerless tumor tracking (MTT). Methods and Materials Fast-kV switching, DE imaging provides for rapid switching between programmed tube voltages (ie, 60 and 120 kVp) from one image frame to the next. To characterize this system, the weighting factor used for logarithmic subtraction and signal difference-to-noise ratio were analyzed as a function of time and frame rate. MTT was evaluated using a thorax motion phantom and fast kV, DE imaging was compared versus single energy (SE) imaging over 360 degrees of rotation. A template-based matching algorithm was used to track target motion on both DE and SE sequences. Receiver operating characteristics were used to compare tracking results for both modalities. Results The weighting factor was inversely related to frame rate and stable over time. After applying the frame rate–dependent weighting factor, the signal difference-to-noise ratio was consistent across all frame rates considered for simulated tumors ranging from 5 to 25 mm in diameter. An analysis of receiver operating characteristics curves showed improved tracking with DE versus SE imaging. The area under the curve for the 10-mm target ranged from 0.821 to 0.858 for SE imaging versus 0.968 to 0.974 for DE imaging. Moreover, the residual tracking errors for the same target size ranged from 2.02 to 2.18 mm versus 0.79 to 1.07 mm for SE and DE imaging, respectively. Conclusions Fast-kV switching, DE imaging was implemented on the on-board imager of a commercial linear accelerator. DE imaging resulted in improved MTT accuracy over SE imaging. Such an approach may have application for MTT of patients with lung cancer receiving stereotactic body radiation therapy, particularly for small tumors where MTT with SE imaging may fail.

PURPOSE: To evaluate fast-kV switching (FS) dual energy (DE) cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) using the on-board imager (OBI) of a commercial linear accelerator to produce virtual monoenergetic (VM) and relative electron density (RED) images. METHODS: Using an polynomial attenuation mapping model, CBCT phantom projections obtained at 80 and 140 kVp with FS imaging, were decomposed into equivalent thicknesses of aluminum (Al) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). All projections were obtained with the titanium foil and bowtie filter in place. Basis material projections were then recombined to create VM images by using the linear attenuation coefficients at the specified energy for each material. Similarly, RED images were produced by replacing the linear attenuation values of Al and PMMA by their respective relative electron density (RED) values in the projection space. VM and RED images were reconstructed using Feldkamp-Davis-Kress (FDK) and an iterative algorithm (iCBCT, Varian Medical Systems). Hounsfield units (HU), contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) and RED values were compared against known values. RESULTS: The results after VM-CBCT production showed good material decomposition and consistent HU(VM) values, with measured root mean square errors (RMSE) from theoretical values, after FDK reconstruction, of 20.5, 5.7, 12.8 and 21.7 HU for 50, 80, 100 and 150 keV, respectively. The largest CNR improvements, when compared to polychromatic images, were observed for the 50 keV VM images. Image noise was reduced up to 28% in the VM-CBCT images after iterative image reconstruction. Relative electron density values measured for our method resulted in a mean percentage error of 0.0 ± 1.8%. CONCLUSIONS: This study describes a method to generate VM-CBCT and RED images using FS-DE scans obtained using the OBI of a linac, including the effects of the bowtie filter. The creation of VM and RED images increases the dynamic range of CBCT images, and provides additional data that may be used for adaptive radiotherapy, and on table verification for radiotherapy treatments.

PURPOSE To present a novel method, based on convolutional neural networks (CNN), to automate weighted log subtraction (WLS) for dual-energy (DE) fluoroscopy to be used in conjunction with markerless tumor tracking (MTT). METHODS A CNN was developed to automate WLS (aWLS) of DE fluoroscopy to enhance soft tissue visibility. Briefly, this algorithm consists of two phases: training a CNN architecture to predict pixel-wise weighting factors followed by application of WLS subtraction to reduce anatomical noise. To train the CNN, a custom phantom was built consisting of aluminum (Al) and acrylic (PMMA) step wedges. Per-pixel ground truth (GT) weighting factors were calculated by minimizing the contrast of Al in the step wedge phantom to train the CNN. The pretrained model was then utilized to predict pixel-wise weighting factors for use in WLS. For comparison, the weighting factor was manually determined in each projection (mWLS). A thorax phantom with five simulated spherical targets (5-25 mm) embedded in a lung cavity, was utilized to assess aWLS performance. The phantom was imaged with fast-kV dual-energy (120 and 60 kVp) fluoroscopy using the on-board imager of a commercial linear accelerator. DE images were processed offline to produce soft tissue images using both WLS methods. MTT was compared using soft tissue images produced with both mWLS and aWLS techniques. RESULTS Qualitative evaluation demonstrated that both methods achieved soft tissue images with similar quality. The use of aWLS increased the number of tracked frames by 1-5% compared to mWLS, with the largest increase observed for the smallest simulated tumors. The tracking errors for both methods produced agreement to within 0.1 mm. CONCLUSIONS A novel method to perform automated WLS for DE fluoroscopy was developed. Having similar soft tissue quality as well as bone suppression capability as mWLS, this method allows for real-time processing of DE images for MTT.

Purpose Proton CT (pCT) has the ability to reduce inherent uncertainties in proton treatment by directly measuring the relative proton stopping power with respect to water, thereby avoiding the uncertain conversion of X‐ray CT Hounsfield unit to relative stopping power and the deleterious effect of X‐ ray CT artifacts. The purpose of this work was to further evaluate the potential of pCT for pretreatment positioning using experimental pCT data of a head phantom. Methods The performance of a 3D image registration algorithm was tested with pCT reconstructions of a pediatric head phantom. A planning pCT simulation scan of the phantom was obtained with 200 MeV protons and reconstructed with a 3D filtered back projection (FBP) algorithm followed by iterative reconstruction and a representative pretreatment pCT scan was reconstructed with FBP only to save reconstruction time. The pretreatment pCT scan was rigidly transformed by prescribing random errors with six degrees of freedom or deformed by the deformation field derived from a head and neck cancer patient to the pretreatment pCT reconstruction, respectively. After applying the rigid or deformable image registration algorithm to retrieve the original pCT image before transformation, the accuracy of the registration was assessed. To simulate very low‐dose imaging for patient setup, the proton CT images were reconstructed with 100%, 50%, 25%, and 12.5% of the total number of histories of the original planning pCT simulation scan, respectively. Results The residual errors in image registration were lower than 1 mm and 1° of magnitude regardless of the anatomic directions and imaging dose. The mean residual errors ranges found for rigid image registration were from −0.29 ± 0.09 to 0.51 ± 0.50 mm for translations and from −0.05 ± 0.13 to 0.08 ± 0.08 degrees for rotations. The percentages of sub‐millimetric errors found, for deformable image registration, were between 63.5% and 100%. Conclusion This experimental head phantom study demonstrated the potential of low‐dose pCT imaging for 3D image registration. Further work is needed to confirm the value pCT for pretreatment image‐guided proton therapy.

O uso de CBCT na radioterapia para o tratamento do câncer de próstata é questionada por restrições de qualidade de imagem e limitações técnicas. Tais fatores podem frustrar o intento de utilizar imagens volumétricas para quantificar as alterações anatômicas e avaliar o plano de tratamento. Este estudo investiga o impacto de alterações anatômicas e o potencial do uso de CBCT para IMRT e IMPT em pacientes de câncer de próstata. A fusão deformável (DIR) de imagens é aplicada em 9 pacientes com câncer de próstata escaneados com CBCT, para adaptar a tomografia de planejamento e produzir uma tomografia virtual com anatomia atualizada do paciente. O acompanhamento diário por imagem foi simulado com CBCT repetidas, com base nos tecidos moles ou na correspondência da anatomia óssea. A detecção automática de pontos de referência foi usada para avaliar a distância residual dos pontos de referência distribuídos na região de interesse (alvo e órgãos em risco) após o DIR. O DIR permitiu que a distância média desses marcos fosse reduzida de 3.79 para 2.00 mm. Os planos IMRT e IMPT foram criados e recalculados em tomografias virtuais. O aumento da dose do reto foi observado em 8 dos 9 pacientes, e em 3 casos houve violação das restrições, de acordo com as diretrizes do QUANTEC, de até 75 Gy em 19% do volume do reto. A perda de cobertura de CTV mais importante foi em torno de 5% da dose prescrita para um caso de terapia de prótons. Para ambos os tipos de tratamento, o movimento inter-fração de PTV e variações estruturais de órgãos em risco, podem resultar em perda de cobertura de alvo e / ou dano excessivo precoce em tecido de resposta aguda.

The modality of radiotherapy with protons shows promising results compared to conventional treatment with photons. There are softwares, such as GEANT4 and SRIM, which allow simulations of passages of heavy particles through matter, thus making it possible to obtain useful results for specific studies in this area. Its importance comes from its relative simplicity of use mainly due to the high cost of hadron accelerators. The analysis of the parameters calculated by simulations and their levels of uncertainty in the region of the Bragg peak will be essential to future development stages of treatment plans with proton beam. This work presents some simulations about the trend of increase in mean lateral deviation (in the Bragg peek region) with increasing energy of the incident beam.