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BackgroundKaposi’s Sarcoma Herpesvirus (KSHV) is a gammaherpesvirus strongly linked to human cancer. The virus is also able to induce immune suppression, effect that contributes to onset/progression of the viral-associated malignancies. As KSHV may infect macrophages and these cells abundantly infiltrate Kaposi’s sarcoma lesions, in this study we investigated whether KSHV-infection could affect macrophage polarisation to promote tumorigenesis.MethodsFACS analysis was used to detect macrophage markers and PD-L1 expression. KSHV infection and the molecular pathways activated were investigated by western blot analysis and by qRT-PCR while cytokine release was assessed by Multi-analyte Kit.ResultsWe found that KSHV infection reduced macrophage survival and skewed their polarisation towards M2 like/TAM cells, based on the expression of CD163, on the activation of STAT3 and STAT6 pathways and the release of pro-tumorigenic cytokines such as IL-10, VEGF, IL-6 and IL-8. We also found that KSHV triggered Ire1 α-XBP1 axis activation in infected macrophages to increase the release of pro-tumorigenic cytokines and to up-regulate PD-L1 surface expression.ConclusionsThe findings that KSHV infection of macrophages skews their polarisation towards M2/TAM and that activate Ire1 α-XBP1 to increase the release of pro-tumorigenic cytokines and the expression of PD-L1, suggest that manipulation of UPR could be exploited to prevent or improve the treatment of KSHV-associated malignancies.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA repair, respectively, promote and limit oncogenic transformation of B cells driven by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). We have previously shown that EBV infection reduced autophagy in primary B lymphocytes and enhanced ROS and interleukin 6 (IL-6) release, promoting B-cell proliferation and immortalization. In this study, we explored the role of p62/SQSTM1, accumulated as a consequence of autophagy reduction in EBV-infected B lymphocytes, and found that it exerted a growth-suppressive effect in these cells. At the molecular level, we found that p62 counteracted IL-6 production and ROS increase by interacting with NRF2 and promoting mitophagy. Moreover, p62/NRF2 axis sustained the expression level of H2AX and ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM), whose activation has been shown to have growth-suppressive effects during the first steps of EBV infection, before latency is established. In conclusion, this study shows for the first time that the accumulation of p62 and the activation of p62/axis counteracted EBV-driven proliferation of primary B lymphocytes.

It is emerging that targeting the adaptive functions of Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) may represent a promising anti-cancer therapeutic approach. This is particularly relevant for B-cell lymphomas, characterized by a high level of constitutive stress due to high c-Myc expression. In this study, we found that IRE1α/XBP1 axis inhibition exerted a stronger cytotoxic effect compared to the inhibition of the other two UPR sensors, namely PERK and ATF6, in Burkitt lymphoma (BL) cells, in correlation with c-Myc downregulation. Interestingly, such an effect was more evident in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-negative BL cells or those cells expressing type I latency compared to type III latency BL cells. The other interesting finding of this study was that the inhibition of IRE1α/XBP1 downregulated BRCA-1 and RAD51 and potentiated the cytotoxicity of PARP inhibitor AZD2661 against BL cells and also against Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL), another aggressive B-cell lymphoma driven by c-Myc and associated with gammaherpesvirus infection. These results suggest that combining the inhibition of UPR sensors, particularly IRE1α/XBP1 axis, and molecules involved in DDR, such as PARP, could offer a new therapeutic opportunity for treating aggressive B-cell lymphomas such as BL and PEL.

Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is a rare and aggressive B-cell lymphoma, against which current therapies usually fail. In the present study, we show that targeting HSPs, such as HSP27, HSP70 and HSP90, could be an efficient strategy to reduce PEL cell survival, as it induces strong DNA damage, which correlated with an impairment of DDR. Moreover, as HSP27, HSP70 and HSP90 cross talk with STAT3, their inhibition results in STAT3 de-phosphorylation and. On the other hand, the inhibition of STAT3 may downregulate these HSPs. These findings suggest that targeting HSPs has important implications in cancer therapy, as it can reduce the release of cytokines by PEL cells, which, besides affecting their own survival, could negatively influence anti-cancer immune response.

The Tyr705 STAT3 constitutive activation, besides promoting PEL cell survival, contributes to the maintenance of viral latency. We found indeed that its de-phosphorylation by AG490 induced KSHV lytic cycle. Moreover, Tyr705 STAT3 de-phosphorylation, mediated by the activation of tyrosine phosphatases, together with the increase of Ser727 STAT3 phosphorylation contributed to KSHV lytic cycle induction by TPA. We then observed that p53-p21 axis, essential for the induction of KSHV replication, was activated by the inhibition of Tyr705 and by the increase of Ser727 STAT3 phosphorylation. As a possible link between STAT3, p53-p21 and KSHV lytic cycle, we found that TPA and AG490 reduced the expression of KAP-1, promoting p53 stability, p21 transcription and KSHV lytic cycle activation in PEL cells.

PEL is a rare B cell lymphoma associated with KSHV that mainly arises in immune-deficient individuals. The search for new drugs to treat this cancer is still ongoing given its aggressiveness and the poor response to chemotherapies. In this study, we found that DMF, a drug known for its anti-inflammatory properties which is registered for the treatment of psoriasis and relapsing–remitting MS, could be a promising therapeutic strategy against PEL. Indeed, although some mechanisms of resistance were induced, DMF activated NRF2, reduced ROS and inhibited the phosphorylation of STAT3 and the release of the pro-inflammatory and immune suppressive cytokines IL-6 and IL-10, which are known to sustain PEL survival. Interestingly, we observed that DMF displayed a stronger cytotoxic effect against fresh PEL cells in comparison to PEL cell lines, due to the activation of ERK1/2 and autophagy in the latter cells. This finding further encourages the possibility of using DMF for the treatment of PEL.

Viral egress and autophagy are two mechanisms that seem to be strictly connected in Herpesviruses's biology. Several data suggest that the autophagic machinery facilitates the egress of viral capsids and thus the production of new infectious particles. In the Herpesvirus family, viral nuclear egress is controlled and organized by a well conserved group of proteins named Nuclear Egress Complex (NEC). In the case of EBV, NEC is composed by BFRF1 and BFLF2 proteins, although the alterations of the nuclear host cell architecture are mainly driven by BFRF1, a multifunctional viral protein anchored to the inner nuclear membrane of the host cell. BFRF1 shares a peculiar distribution with several nuclear components and with them it strictly interacts. In this study, we investigated the possible role of BFRF1 in manipulating autophagy, pathway that possibly originates from nucleus, regulating the interplay between autophagy and viral egress.

Background Peripheral facial nerve palsy (FNP) can have various causes, such as Bell's palsy or after surgery for acoustic neuroma. Rehabilitation is often required but there is no evidence that any rehabilitation approach is more efficacious than another. Aim The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of neurocognitive-rehabilitative approach through mirror-therapy (MT) and motor-imagery (MI), integrated into the traditional rehabilitation with mime-therapy and myofascial-approach. Design This study was designed as a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Setting This study took place from January 2016 to June 2018 at the Unit of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation of Umberto I Polyclinic Hospital, Rome, Italy. Population Twenty-two patients were randomized into two groups: the mirror therapy group (N.=11, MT and MI) and the traditional rehabilitation group (N.=11, mime-therapy and a myofascial-approach). Methods Outcome assessments were performed before treatment (T0), after one month (T1=10 session, twice/week), after the second and third months (T2=10 twice/week + 5 of MT+MI one/week and T3=10 twice/week + 5 of MT+MI 1/week), and at the 4-week follow-up (T4=2 months follow-up). Results The analysis of the functional evaluations show that both groups experienced progressive improvement T0 to T3, with stabilization of the results at the follow-up. There was a significant difference in House-Brackmann-Scale scores between T0 and follow-up in favor of the experimental group. In terms of quality of life (FaCE scale), total scores and social function items improved in both groups from T0 to T3. The experimental group obtained better results with regard to quality of life and emotional depression. Conclusions The integrated use of MT and MI is efficacious in the rehabilitation of FNP, improving facial physical function. Further studies are needed to determine the predictive factors of the recovery of facial mimic. Clinical rehabilitation impact The ability of patients with unilateral facial paralysis to recognize and appropriately judge facial expressions and perceive the judgments of others remains underexplored. The likelihood of recovering near-normal facial-function after grade VI facial paralysis is low. Procedures, such as the immediate repair of the facial nerve with an interposed donor graft, might improve facial function in patients with partially injured facial nerves.

Human Herpes Virus-6 (HHV-6), Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and Kaposi Sarcoma Herpes Virus (KSHV) are viruses that share with other member of the Herpesvirus family the capacity to interfere with the autophagic process. In this paper, mainly based on the findings of our laboratory, we describe how, through different mechanisms, these viruses converge in reducing autophagy to impair DC immune function and how, by infecting and dysregulating autophagy in different cell types, they promote the pathologies associated with their infection, from the neurodegenerative diseases such Alzheimer’s disease to cancer.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the causative agent of KS, an aggressive neoplasm that mainly occurs in immune-compromised patients. Spindle cells represent the main feature of this aggressive malignancy and arise from KSHV-infected endothelial cells undergoing endothelial to mesenchymal transition (EndMT), which changes their cytoskeletal composition and organization. As in epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), EndMT is driven by transcription factors such as SNAI1 and ZEB1 and implies a cellular reprogramming mechanism regulated by several molecular pathways, particularly PI3K/AKT/MTOR. Here we found that KSHV activated MTOR and its targets 4EBP1 and ULK1 and reduced bulk macroautophagy and mitophagy to promote EndMT, activate ER stress/unfolded protein response (UPR), and increase the release of the pro-angiogenic and pro-inflammatory chemokine CCL2 by HUVEC cells. Our study suggests that the manipulation of macroautophagy, mitophagy and UPR and the interplay between the three could be a promising strategy to counteract EndMT, angiogenesis and inflammation, the key events of KSHV-driven sarcomagenesis.

The oncogenic gammaherpesvirus Epstein&ndash, Barr virus (EBV) immortalizes in vitro B lymphocytes into lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs), a model that gives the opportunity to explore the molecular mechanisms driving viral tumorigenesis. In this study, we addressed the potential of quercetin, a widely distributed flavonoid displaying antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties, in preventing EBV-driven B cell immortalization. The results obtained indicated that quercetin inhibited thectivation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) induced by EBV infection and reduced molecules such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and reactive oxidative species (ROS) known to be essential for the immortalization process. Moreover, we found that quercetin promoted autophagy and counteracted the accumulation of sequestosome1/p62 (SQSTM1/p62), ultimately leading to the prevention of B cell immortalization. These findings suggest that quercetin may have the potential to be used to counteract EBV-driven lymphomagenesis, especially if its stability is improved.

EBV has been reported to impair monocyte in vitro differentiation into dendritic cells (DCs) and reduce cell survival. In this study, we added another layer of knowledge to this topic and showed that these effects correlated with macroautophagy/autophagy, ROS and mitochondrial biogenesis reduction. Of note, autophagy and ROS, although strongly interconnected, have been separately reported to be induced by CSF2/GM-CSF (colony stimulating factor 2) and required for CSF2-IL4-driven monocyte in vitro differentiation into DCs. We show that EBV infects monocytes and initiates a feedback loop in which, by inhibiting autophagy, reduces ROS and through ROS reduction negatively influences autophagy. Mechanistically, autophagy reduction correlated with the downregulation of RAB7 and ATG5 expression and STAT3 activation, leading to the accumulation of SQSTM1/p62. The latter activated the SQSTM1-KEAP1- NFE2L2 axis and upregulated the anti-oxidant response, reducing ROS and further inhibiting autophagy. ROS decrease correlated also with the reduction of mitochondria, the main source of intracellular ROS, achieved by the downregulation of NRF1 and TFAM, mitochondrial biogenesis transcription factors. Interestingly, mitochondria supply membranes and ATP required for autophagy execution, thus their reduction may further reduce autophagy in EBV-infected monocytes. In conclusion, this study shows for the first time that the interconnected reduction of autophagy, intracellular ROS and mitochondria mediated by EBV switches monocyte differentiation into apoptosis, giving new insights into the mechanisms through which this virus reduces immune surveillance. Abbreviations: ACTB: actin beta; ATG5: autophagy related 5; BAF: bafilomycin A(1); BECN1: beclin 1; CAT: catalase; CSF2: colony stimulating factor 2; CT: control; CYCS (cytochrome C: somatic); DCs: dendritic cells; EBV: Epstein-Barr virus; GSR: glutathione-disulfide reductase; KEAP1: kelch like ECH associated protein 1; IL4: interleukin 4; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MET: metformin; NAC: N-acetylcysteine; NFE2L2/NRF2 nuclear factor: erythroid 2 like 2; NRF1 (nuclear respiratory factor 1); clPARP1: cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; Rapa: Rapamycin; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; TFAM: (transcription factor A: mitochondrial); TUBA1A: tubulin alpha 1a.

Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) (also called B7-H1) is a membrane immune-modulatory protein whose overexpression on the surface of tumor cells as well as APCs impairs T-cell-mediated killing. Viruses that establish chronic infections have developed a number of strategies to escape from immune recognition including the up-regulation of PD-L1. This study shows for the first time that the human oncovirus EBV infects human primary monocytes using HLA-DR and induced a strong up-regulation of PD-L1 expression on their surface. Searching for the underlying mechanism/s leading to this immune suppressive effect, we found that EBV activated TLR signaling, increased intracellular ROS, and phosphorylated STAT3. Targeting these molecules partially reverted PD-L1 up-regulation that correlated with an altered cytokine production and a reduction of monocyte cell survival, strongly impairing the antiviral immune response. EBV induces PD-L1 expression on the surface of infected monocytes suggesting that targeting this molecule could help to prevent or treat viral-associated diseases.

Constitutively activated prosurvival pathways render cancer cells addicted to their effects. Consequently they turn out to be the Achilles’ heels whose inhibition can be exploited in anticancer therapy. Primary effusion lymphomas (PELs) are very aggressive non-Hodgkin’s B cell lymphomas, whose pathogenesis is strictly linked to Kaposi’s sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) infection. Here we summarized previous studies from our and other laboratories exploring the cytotoxic effect of drugs inhibiting the main prosurvival pathways activated in PEL cells. Moreover, the immunogenicity of cell death, in terms of dendritic cell (DC) activation and their potential side effect on DCs, is discussed.

KSHV and EBV are gammaherpesviruses strictly linked to human cancers. Even if the majority of cancer cells harbor a latent infection, the few cells that undergo viral replication may contribute to the pathogenesis and maintenance of the virus-associated malignancies. Cytotoxic drugs used for the therapies of cancers harboring virus-infection often have, as side effect, the activation of viral lytic cycle. Therefore it is important to investigate whether they affect viral reactivation and understand the underlying mechanisms involved. In this study, we found that proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, a cytotoxic drug that efficiently target gammaherpesvirus-associated B cell lymphomas, triggered KSHV or EBV viral lytic cycle by activating JNK, in the course of ER stress, and inducing autophagy. These results suggest that the manipulation of these pathways could limit viral spread and improve the outcome of bortezomib treatment in patients affected by gammaherpesvirus-associated lymphomas.

Metformin, the most used drug for the treatment of diabetes type 2 patients, has been shown to have anti-cancer properties. In this study, we found that metformin induced apoptosis in Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL) cells, an aggressive B cell lymphoma associated with KSHV against which the conventional therapies usually fail. The cytotoxic effect of metformin correlated with intracellular reactive oxygen species reduction, activation of AMPK, the inhibition of pro-survival pathways such as mTOR and STAT3 and the down-regulation of v-FLIP, a latent viral antigen that also plays a pivotal role in PEL cell survival. Interestingly, we found that metformin could be used to potentiate the bortezomib-mediated cytotoxicity against PEL cells and to inhibit the activation of KSHV lytic cycle, a side effect of this treatment that resulted in a block of autophagy in these cells. Mechanistically, metformin altered UPR activated by bortezomib, leading to a reduced expression of BiP, up-regulation of CHOP and down-regulation of Bcl-2. In summary, this study suggests that metformin could represent a promising strategy for the treatment of PEL alone or in combination with bortezomib. In the latter case, besides exerting a stronger cytotoxic effect, it might be used to restrain bortezomib-induced viral replication that is involved in the maintenance and progression of KSHV-associated malignancies.

KSHV is a gammaherpesvirus strongly associated to human cancers such as Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL) and Kaposi's Sarcoma. The naturally virus-infected tumor cells usually display latent infection since a minority of cells undergoes spontaneous viral replication. The lytic cycle can be induced in vitro upon appropriate stimuli such as TPA (T), alone or in combination with butyrate (B), (T/B). In previous studies, Protein Kinase C (PKC) δ, Extracellular Signal-regulated Kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) and p53-p21 axis have been separately reported to play a role in KSHV reactivation from latency. Here, we found that these pathways were interconnected to induce KSHV lytic cycle in PEL cells treated with T/B. T/B also increased H2O2 that played an important role in the activation of these pathways. Oxidant specie production correlated with PKC δ activation, as the PKC δ inhibitor rottlerin reduced both H2O2 and KSHV lytic antigen expression. H2O2 contributed to T/B-mediated ERK1/2 activation that mediated p53 phosphorylation at serine 15 (Ser15) and increased p21 expression. Oxidant specie inhibition by quercetin indeed strongly reduced the activation of these pathways, lytic antigen expression and interestingly it also increased T/B-induced cell death. The use of ERK inhibitor PD98059 or p53 silencing demonstrated the importance of p53Ser15 phosphorylation and of p53-p21 axis in KSHV lytic cycle activation. Understanding the role of oxidant species and the molecular mechanisms involved in KSHV lytic cycle induction is particularly important since oxidant species represent the most physiological stimulus for viral reactivation in vivo and it is known that viral production contributes to the maintenance/progression of KSHV associated malignancies.

Autophagy is a catabolic pathway that helps cells to survive under stressful conditions. Cells also use autophagy to clear microbiological infections, but microbes have learned how to manipulate the autophagic pathway for their own benefit. The experimental evidence obtained in this study suggests that the autophagic flux is blocked at the final steps during the reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) from latency. This is indicated by the level of the lipidated form of LC3 that does not increase in the presence of bafilomycin and by the lack of colocalization of autophagosomes with lysosomes, which correlates with reduced Rab7 expression. Since the inhibition of the early phases of autophagy impaired EBV replication and viral particles were observed in autophagic vesicles in the cytoplasm of producing cells, we suggest that EBV exploits the autophagic machinery for its transportation in order to enhance viral production. The autophagic block was not mediated by ZEBRA, an immediate-early EBV lytic gene, whose transfection in Ramos, Akata, and 293 cells promoted a complete autophagic flux. The block occurred only when the complete set of EBV lytic genes was expressed. We suggest that the inhibition of the early autophagic steps or finding strategies to overcome the autophagic block, allowing viral degradation into the lysosomes, can be exploited to manipulate EBV replication. IMPORTANCE This study shows, for the first time, that autophagy is blocked at the final degradative steps during EBV replication in several cell types. Through this block, EBV hijacks the autophagic vesicles for its intracellular transportation and enhances viral production. A better understanding of virus-host interactions could help in the design of new therapeutic approaches against EBV-associated malignancies.

Quercetin, a bioflavonoid contained in several vegetables daily consumed, has been studied for long time for its antiinflammatory and anticancer properties. Quercetin interacts with multiple cancer-related pathways such as PI3K/AKT, Wnt/β-catenin and STAT3. These pathways are hyperactivated in primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), an aggressive B cell lymphoma whose pathogenesis is strictly linked to the oncogenic virus Kaposis' Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus (KSHV). In this study, we found that quercetin inhibited PI3K/AKT/mTOR and STAT3 pathways in PEL cells, and as a consequence, it down-regulated the expression of the prosurvival cellular proteins such as c-FLIP, cyclin D1 and cMyc. It also reduced the release of IL-6 and IL-10 cytokines, leading to PEL cell death. Moreover, quercetin induced a prosurvival autophagy in these cells and increased the cytotoxic effect of bortezomib, a proteasomal inhibitor, against them. Interestingly, quercetin decreased also the expression of latent and lytic KSHV proteins involved in PEL tumorigenesis and up-regulated the surface expression of HLA-DR and calreticulin, rendering the dying cells more likely detectable by the immune system. The results obtained in this study indicate that quercetin, which does not exert any cytotoxicity against normal B cells, may represent a good candidate for the treatment of this aggressive B cell lymphoma, especially in combination with autophagy inhibitors or with bortezomib.

We have previously shown that Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) impairs monocyte differentiation into dendritic cells (DCs). Macroautophagy/autophagy has been reported to be essential in such a differentiating process. Here we extended these studies and found that the impairment of DC formation by KSHV occurs through autophagy inhibition. KSHV indeed reduces CAST (calpastatin) and consequently decreases ATG5 expression in both THP-1 monocytoid cells and primary monocytes. We unveiled a new mechanism put in place by KSHV to escape from immune control. The discovery of viral immune suppressive strategies that contribute to the onset and progression of viral-associated malignancies is of fundamental importance for finding new therapeutic approaches against them.

This study confirms that autophagy is activated concomitantly with KSHV lytic cycle induction, and that autophagy inhibition by BECN1 knockdown reduces viral lytic gene expression. In addition, we extend previous observations and show that autophagy is blocked at late steps, during viral replication. This is indicated by the lack of colocalization of autophagosomes and lysosomes and by the LC3-II level that does not increase in the presence of bafilomycin A1 in primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) cells induced to enter the lytic cycle, either by TPA/sodium butyrate (BC3 and BCBL1) or by doxycycline (TRExBCBL1-Rta). The autophagic block correlates with the downregulation of RAB7, whose silencing with specific siRNA results in an autophagic block in the same cells. Finally, by electron microscopy analysis, we observed viral particles inside autophagic vesicles in the cytoplasm of PEL cells undergoing viral replication, suggesting that they may be involved in viral transport.

Reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction has been used to analyze the expression of 2 latent genes (EBNA-1 and LMP-1) and one replicative gene (BZLF-1) of Epstein-Barr virus in mononuclear cells from bone marrow and peripheral blood of healthy donors. EBV-gene transcription was detected in 8 out of 15 bone-marrow samples. Among these, 5 allowed the detection of latency-associated transcripts in the absence of BZLF-1 expression. Only one sample showed positivity for expression of both latent and lytic genes. In 2 cases, BZLF-1 was the only transcript detected. In peripheral blood, 4 out of 7 samples showed evidence of EBNA-1 transcription; LMP-1 was expressed in 5 samples, and in 2 cases concomitant expression of EBNA-1 and BZLF-1 was detected. These results provide a direct demonstration by RT-PCR of EBV-gene transcription in bone-marrow-resident viral infected cells and suggest, in contrast to previous studies on peripheral blood, that LMP-1 and BZLF-1 are frequently transcribed also in absence of EBV-related disease. The heterogeneous viral gene expression found makes it difficult to define a pattern of viral latency in vivo which coincides with that described for lymphoblastoid or Burkitt's-lymphoma cell lines at different stages of differentiation. Int. J. Cancer 70:524–529. © 1997 Wiley-Liss Inc.

Background Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway regulates multiple cellular processes such as cell proliferation, evasion from apoptosis, migration, glucose metabolism, protein synthesis and proper differentiation in immune cells. Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), an oncogenic virus associated with several human malignancies, expresses a variety of latent and lytic proteins able to activate PI3K/AKT pathway, promoting the growth of infected cells and a successful viral infection. Results We found that KSHV latent infection of THP-1 cells, a human monocytic cell line derived from an acute monocytic leukemia patient, resulted in an increase of AKT phoshorylation, not susceptible to bortezomib-induced dephosphorylation, compared to the mock-infected THP-1. Accordingly, THP-1-infected cells displayed increased resistance to the bortezomib cytotoxic effect in comparison to the uninfected cells, which was counteracted by pre-treatment with AKT-specific inhibitors. Finally, AKT hyperactivation by KSHV infection correlated with plasma membrane exposure of glucose transporter GLUT1, particularly evident during bortezomib treatment. GLUT1 membrane trafficking is a characteristic of malignant cells and underlies a change of glucose metabolism that ensures the survival to highly proliferating cells and render these cells highly dependent on glycolysis. GLUT1 membrane trafficking in KSHV-infected THP-1 cells indeed led to increased sensitivity to cell death induced by the glycolysis inhibitor 2-Deoxy-D-glucose (2DG), further potentiated by its combination with bortezomib. Conclusions KSHV confers to the THP-1 infected cells an oncogenic potential by altering the phosphorylation, expression and localization of key molecules that control cell survival and metabolism such as AKT and GLUT1. Such modifications in one hand lead to resistance to cell death induced by some chemotherapeutic drugs such as bortezomib, but on the other hand, offer an Achilles heel, rendering the infected cells more sensitive to other treatments such as AKT or glycolysis inhibitors. These therapeutic strategies can be exploited in the anticancer therapy of KSHV-associated malignancies.

p29, a newly identified Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) protein, is the product of ORF67, the positional homolog of the conserved herpesvirus protein UL34. Like its homologues in other herpesviruses, p29 is expressed early during viral lytic cycle, and is localized on the nuclear rim. Upon chemical induction of viral replication in primary effusion lymphoma cells, p29 interacts with p33, encoded by ORF69, the positional homolog of the conserved herpesvirus protein UL31, and both proteins colocalize on the nuclear membrane. IFA and biochemical analysis of infected or transfected cells showed that p29 expression resulted in delocalization and hyperphosphorylation of emerin, whereas other nuclear lamin associated proteins, such as LUMA, LB1 and LBR were not affected. Mislocalization of emerin was robustly increased upon combined expression of p29 and p33, suggesting that emerin destabilization might represent the first step in nuclear lamina disassembling, a process necessary for nucleocapsid maturation.

International audience; To understand how cytotoxic agent-induced cancer cell death affects the immune system is of fundamental importance to stimulate immune response to counteract the high mortality due to cancer. Here we compared the immunogenicity of Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL) cell death induced by anticancer drug Bortezomib (Velcade) and Tyrphostin AG 490, a Janus Activated Kinase 2/signal trasducer and activator of transcription-3 (JAK2/STAT3) inhibitor. We show that both treatments were able to induce PEL apoptosis with similar kinetics and promote dendritic cells (DC) maturation. The surface expression of molecules involved in immune activation, namely calreticulin (CRT), heat shock proteins (HSP) 90 and 70 increased in dying cells. This was correlated with DC activation. We found that PEL cell death induced by Bortezomib was more effective in inducing uptake by DC compared to AG 490 or combination of both drugs. However the DC activation induced by all treatments was completely inhibited when these cells were pretreated with a neutralizing antiboby directed against the HSP90/70 and CRT common receptor, CD91. The activation of DC by Bortezomib and AG 490 treated PEL cells, as seen in the present study, might have important implications for a combined chemo and immunotherapy in such patients.

Previous genetic and biochemical studies performed with several members of the Alphaherpesvirus subfamily have shown that the UL31 and UL34 proteins are essential components of the molecular machinery that mediates the primary egress of newly assembled capsids across the nuclear membrane. Further, there is substantial evidence that BFLF2 and BFRF1, the respective positional homologs of UL31 and UL34 in the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome, are also their functional homologs, i.e., that the UL31/UL34 pathway is common to distant herpesviruses. However, the low degree of protein sequence identity between UL31 and BFLF2 would argue against such a hypothesis. To further clarify this issue, we have constructed a recombinant EBV strain devoid of BFLF2 (ΔBFLF2) and show that BFLF2 is crucial for efficient virus production but not for lytic DNA replication or B-cell transformation. This defective phenotype could be efficiently restored by trans complementation with a BFLF2 expression plasmid. Detailed analysis of replicating cells by electron microscopy revealed that, as expected, ΔBFLF2 viruses not only failed to egress from the nucleus but also showed defective DNA packaging. Nonfunctional primary egress did not, however, impair the production and extracellular release of enveloped but empty viral particles that comprised L particles containing tegument-like structures and a few virus-like particles carrying empty capsids. The ΔBFLF2 and ΔUL31 phenotypes therefore only partly overlap, from which we infer that BFLF2 and UL31 have substantially diverged during evolution to fulfil related but distinct functions.

We report the identification and characterization of p33, the product of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) open reading frame 69 (ORF69), a positional homolog of the conserved herpesvirus protein UL31. p33 is expressed upon induction of viral lytic cycle with early kinetics. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that in infected cell lines, the protein is localized in the nucleus, both in dotted spots and along the nuclear membrane. Nuclear fractionation experiments showed that p33 partitions with the nuclear matrix, and both immunoblotting of purified virions and immunoelectron microscopy indicated that the novel protein is not a component of the mature virus. Following ectopic expression in KSHV-negative cells, the protein was never associated with the nuclear membrane, suggesting that p33 needs to interact with additional viral proteins to reach the nuclear rim. In fact, after cotransfection with the ORF67 gene, the KSHV positional homolog of UL34, the p33 intranuclear signal changed and the two proteins colocalized on the nuclear membrane. A similar result was obtained when ORF69 was cotransfected with BFRF1, the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) positional homolog of UL34 and ORF67. Finally, upon cotransfection, ORF69 significantly increased nuclear membrane reduplications induced by BFRF1. The above results indicate that KSHV p33 shares many similarities with its EBV homolog BFLF2 and suggest that functional cross-complementation is possible between members of the gammaherpesvirus subfamily.

The switch from latency to lytic phase of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is coordinated by the expression of two viral transactivators known as ZEBRA and RTA. The BFRF1 gene has been shown to be transcribed during the early phases of EBV lytic cycle. Here, we characterized the BFRF1 promoter showing that ZEBRA transfection stimulated BFRF1 expression, whereas RTA induced BFRF1 only after the transfection of an amount of plasmid largely in excess than that sufficient to stimulate the expression of other RTA-responsive genes. However, a co-operative effect between ZEBRA and RTA in the expression of BFRF1 is evident since the transfection of RTA can rescue the transactivating capacity of a mutant of the ZEBRA protein, known as Z(S186A), that has a substitution affecting the DNA binding region. Moreover, we identified one ZEBRA-responsive element (ZRE) and one RTA-responsive element (RRE) within the BFRF1 promoter region.

The molecular mechanisms that underlie maturation and egress of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) virions are only partially characterized. We have recently shown that the BFRF1 gene, the EBV positional homolog of herpes simplex virus type 1 and pseudorabies virus UL34, is expressed early during EBV lytic replication and that it is found predominantly on the nuclear membrane (A. Farina, R. Santarelli, R. Gonnella, R. Bei, R. Muraro, G. Cardinali, S. Uccini, G. Ragona, L. Frati, A. Faggioni, and A. Angeloni, J. Virol. 74:3235-3244, 2000). These data suggest that the BFRF1 protein might be involved in viral primary envelopment. To precisely determine the function of this protein, we have constructed an EBV mutant devoid of the BFRF1 gene (BFRF1-KO). 293 cells carrying BFRF1-KO showed no differences in comparison with wild-type EBV in terms of DNA lytic replication or expression of late viral proteins upon induction of the lytic cycle. However, binding assays and infection experiments using cell lines or human cord blood lymphocytes showed a clear reduction in the viral mutant titers. Complementation experiments with BFRF1-KO and a BFRF1 expression vector restored viral titers to levels similar to those for the wild-type control, showing that the modifications that we introduced were limited to the BFRF1 gene. Electron microscopic observations showed that the reduction in viral titers was due to sequestration of EBV nucleocapsids in the nuclei of lytically induced cells. This suggests that BFRF1 is involved in transport of the maturing virion across the nuclear membrane. This hypothesis was further supported by the observation that BFRF1 is present in maturing intracellular virions but not in their extracellular counterparts. This implies that BFRF1 is a key protein for EBV maturation.

We have reported in the accompanying paper that the BFRF1 protein of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is important for efficient primary viral envelopment and egress (A. Farina, R. Feederle, S. Raffa, R. Gonnella, R. Santarelli, L. Frati, A. Angeloni, M. R. Torrisi, A. Faggioni, and H.-J. Delecluse, J. Virol. 79:3703-3712). Here we describe the characterization of the product of the EBV BFLF2 gene, which belongs to a family of conserved herpesviral genes which include the UL31 genes of herpes simplex virus and of pseudorabies virus and whose products are known to interact with UL34, the positional homolog of BFRF1. BFLF2 is an early transcript and is expressed in a variety of cell lines upon EBV lytic cycle activation. Western blotting of purified virion preparations showed that BFLF2 is a component of intracellular virions but is absent from mature extracellular virions. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments indicated that BFLF2 interacts with BFRF1, which was confirmed by immunofluorescence confocal microscopy showing that the two proteins colocalize on the nuclear membrane not only upon cotransfection in epithelial cells but also during viral replication. In cells carrying an EBV mutant with the BFRF1 gene deleted (293-BFRF1-KO cells) BFLF2 expression was low, and it was restored to wild-type levels upon treatment of the cells with the proteasome inhibitor MG132. Furthermore, recomplementing the 293-BFRF1-KO cells by BFRF1 transfection restored BFLF2 expression to the wild-type level. In addition, when expressed alone BFLF2 was localized diffusely inside the nucleus, whereas in the presence of BFRF1 the two proteins colocalized at the nuclear rim. Finally, 293 epithelial cells transfected with either protein or cotransfected were analyzed by electron microscopy to investigate potential alterations in the morphology of the nuclear membrane. The ultrastructural analysis revealed that (i) BFRF1 caused duplications of the nuclear membrane, similar to those reported to occur during the course of herpesviral replication, and (ii) while BFLF2 alone did not cause any apparent alteration, coexpression of the two proteins dramatically induced profound convolutions of the duplicated nuclear membrane. Both biochemical and morphological analysis showed association of the BFRF1-BFLF2 complex with a component of the nuclear lamina, lamin B. Taken together, these results and those of the accompanying paper (Farina et al., J. Virol. 79:3703-3712) indicate an important role of BFRF1 and BFLF2 in the early steps of EBV maturation at the nuclear membrane.

EBV infection is associated with virtually all cases of undifferentiated NPC, and the EBV-encoded LMP1 is expressed in a proportion of cases. LMP1 has transforming functions similar to members of the TNF receptor family and activates intracellular signaling cascades through interaction with TRAFs. In B cells, expression of TRAF1 is in turn upregulated by LMP1. LMP1 signaling in epithelial cells may be affected by the presence or absence of TRAF1. By immunohistochemistry, we detected TRAF1 expression in 17 of 42 (40%) EBV undifferentiated NPCs. All 7 LMP1 NPC biopsies were also TRAF1. Using an RNAse protection assay, high-level TRAF1 expression was detected in an LMP1-expressing NPC-derived cell line (C15) and expression was weaker in 2 LMP1 – cell lines (C17, C19). Finally, LMP1 upregulated TRAF1 expression in an EBV – keratinocyte cell line. Our results demonstrate that TRAF1 is expressed in NPC tumor cells in vivo and suggest that TRAF1 expression may be upregulated by LMP1 in NPC. An antiapoptotic function has been proposed for TRAF1, and this may be relevant for the pathogenesis of NPC. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

A novel protein encoded by the BFRF1 gene of the Epstein-Barr virus was identified recently [Farina et al. (2000) J Virol 74:3235-3244], which is antigenic "in vivo" and expressed early in the viral replicative cycle. In the present study, its subcellular localization was examined in greater detail comparing Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) induced producing and nonproducing cell lines by immunofluorescence: in 12-0-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced Raji and B95-8 cells, as well as in anti-IgG-stimulated Akata cells, the protein appeared to be localized over the cell nuclear membrane. A similar nuclear membrane localization was observed in epithelial cells of oral hairy leukoplakia, a pathological manifestation of permissive EBV infection. In contrast, upon transfection of BFRF1 in the EBV-negative Burkitt's lymphoma cell line DG75, the protein was localized predominantly over the plasma membrane. The membrane localization was abolished when DG75 cells were transfected with a C-terminal deletion mutant of BFRF1 lacking the transmembrane domain. Because induced Raji cells do not produce virus, the above observations indicate that the nuclear membrane localization is not associated with viral production, but requires the expression of EBV genes, and suggest that additional proteins, expressed early during viral lytic infection, might be necessary to target the protein to the nuclear membrane. Immunogold electron microscopy on ultrathin cryosections of induced B95-8 cells showed that BFRF1 on the nuclear membranes was concentrated over multilayered domains representing areas of active viral replication or at the sites of viral budding, suggesting that BFRF1 is involved in the process of viral assembly.

Aims: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) immortalises B cells in vitro and is associated with several malignancies. Most phenotypic effects of EBV are mediated by latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), which interacts with tumour necrosis factor receptor associated factors (TRAFs) to activate NF-κB. This study examines TRAF1 and LMP1 expression in EBV associated lymphoproliferations. Methods: TRAF1 expression was investigated in 26 Hodgkin lymphomas (HL; 18 EBV+, eight EBV−), seven EBV+ Burkitt lymphomas (BL), two infectious mononucleosis (IM) tonsils, and lymphoreticular tissue from eight chronic virus carriers. Seven anaplastic large cell lymphomas and 10 follicular B cell lymphomas were also studied. Colocalisation of TRAF1 and LMP1 was studied by immunofluorescent double labelling and confocal laser microscopy. Results: TRAF1 colocalises with LMP1 in EBV infected cells in IM. EBV positive lymphocytes from chronic virus carriers were negative for TRAF1 and LMP1. In HL biopsies, TRAF1 was strongly expressed independently of EBV status, whereas all BL cases were TRAF1−. In EBV+ HL cases, TRAF1 colocalised with LMP1. Eight of 10 follicular lymphomas expressed TRAF1 in centroblast-like cells. Four of seven anaplastic large cell lymphomas weakly expressed TRAF1. Conclusions: These results suggest that in non-neoplastic lymphocytes, TRAF1 expression is dependent on the presence of LMP1, and that in IM B cells in vivo, LMP1 associated signalling pathways are active. In HL, TRAF1 is expressed independently of EBV status, probably because of constitutive NF-κB activation. The function of TRAF1 in HL remains to be determined.

Computer analysis of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome indicates there are ∼100 open reading frames (ORFs). Thus far about 30 EBV genes divided into the categories latent and lytic have been identified. The Bam HI F region of EBV is abundantly transcribed during lytic replication. This region is highly conserved among herpesviruses, thus suggesting that some common function could be retained in the ORFs encompassed within this viral fragment. To identify putative novel proteins and possible new markers for viral replication, we focused our attention on the first rightward ORF in the Bam HI F region ( BFRF1 ). Histidine and glutathione S -transferase-tagged BFRF1 fusion proteins were synthesized to produce a mouse monoclonal antibody (MAb). Analysis of human sera revealed a high seroprevalence of antibodies to BFRF1 in patients affected by nasopharyngeal carcinoma or Burkitt's lymphoma, whereas no humoral response to BFRF1 could be detected among healthy donors. An anti-BFRF1 MAb recognizes a doublet migrating at 37 to 38 kDa in cells extracts from EBV-infected cell lines following lytic cycle activation and in an EBV-negative cell line (DG75) transfected with a plasmid expressing the BFRF1 gene. Northern blot analysis allowed the detection of a major transcript of 3.7 kb highly expressed in EBV-positive lytic cycle-induced cell lines. Treatment with inhibitors of viral DNA polymerase, such as phosphonoacetic acid and acyclovir, reduced but did not abolish the transcription of BFRF1 , thus indicating that BFRF1 can be classified as an early gene. Cell fractionation experiments, as well as immunolocalization by immunofluorescence microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and immunoelectron microscopy, showed that BFRF1 is localized on the plasma membrane and nuclear compartments of the cells and is a structural component of the viral particle. Identification of BFRF1 provides a new marker with which to monitor EBV infection and might help us better understand the biology of the virus.

Latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an integral membrane protein which has transforming potential and is necessary but not sufficient for B-cell immortalization by EBV. LMP1 molecules aggregate in the plasma membrane and recruit tumour necrosis factor receptor (TNF-R) -associated factors (TRAFs) which are presumably involved in the signalling cascade leading to NF-kappaB activation by LMP1. Comparable activities are mediated by CD40 and other members of the TNF-R family, which implies that LMP1 could function as a receptor. LMP1 lacks extended extracellular domains similar to beta-adrenergic receptors but, in contrast, it also lacks any motifs involved in ligand binding. By using LMP1 mutants which can be oligomerized at will, we show that the function of LMP1 in 293 cells and B cells is solely dependent on oligomerization of its carboxy-terminus. Biochemically, oligomerization is an intrinsic property of the transmembrane domain of wild-type LMP1 and causes a constitutive phenotype which can be conferred to the signalling domains of CD40 or the TNF-2 receptor. In EBV, immortalized B cells cross-linking in conjunction with membrane targeting of the carboxy-terminal signalling domain of LMP1 is sufficient for its biological activities. Thus, LMP1 acts like a constitutively activated receptor whose biological activities are ligand-independent.

A biologic, immunologic and molecular characterization of an HHV-6 isolate (BA92) rescued by the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of a child affected by Exanthem subitum is reported. The comparison with the known HHV-6 prototype strains showed that BA92 is indistinguishable from the Z29 isolate, and can be included in the variant B group of HHV-6. A seroepidemiologic analysis of the antibody response to BA92 of normal individuals as well as patients affected by diseases potentially associated to HHV-6 infection has shown an overall seropravalence of 81%, and that no variations in seroprevalence or in antibody geometric mean titer are observed assaying the sera also against G.S., U1102, or Z29 infected cells, respectively. These findings indicate: (1) HHV-6 infection is widely diffuse in Italy; (2) it is not possible to discriminate between the viral variants by the currently available IF assays, and (3) no conclusions can be drawn on the potential association of HHV-6 with any of the diseases examined.