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The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical utility of a routine pre-discharge white blood cell count (RPD-WBC) for predicting post-discharge organ space infection (OSI) in children with complicated appendicitis.This was a multicenter study using NSQIP-Pediatric data from 14 hospitals augmented with RPD-WBC data obtained through supplemental chart review. Children with fever or surgical site infection diagnosed during the index admission were excluded. Positive predictive value (PPV) for post-discharge OSI was calculated for RPD-WBC values of persistent leukocytosis (≥9.0x103 cells per microliter), increasing leukocytosis (RPD-WBCpreoperative WBC), quartiles of absolute RPD-WBC, and quartiles of relative proportional change from preoperative WBC. Logistic regression was used to calculate predictive values adjusted for patient age, appendicitis severity, and use of post-discharge antibiotics.1264 children were included, of which 348 (27.5%) had a RPD-WBC obtained (hospital range: 0.8-100%, P0.01). Median RPD-WBC was similar between children who did and did not develop a post-discharge OSI (9.0 vs. 8.9; p=0.57), and leukocytosis was absent in 50% of children who developed a post-discharge OSI. The PPV of RPD-WBC was poor for both persistent and increasing leukocytosis (3.9% and 9.8%, respectively), and for thresholds based on the quartiles of highest RPD-WBC values (11.1, PPV: 6.4%) and greatest proportional change (32% decrease from preoperative WBC; PPV: 7.8%).Routine pre-discharge WBC data have poor predictive value for identifying children at risk for post-discharge OSI following appendectomy for complicated appendicitis.

Hemorrhagic shock in pediatric trauma patients remains a challenging yet preventable cause of death. There is little high-quality evidence available to guide specific aspects of hemorrhage control and specific resuscitation practices in this population. We sought to generate clinical recommendations, expert consensus, and good practice statements to aid providers in care for these difficult patients.The Pediatric Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock Consensus Conference process included systematic reviews related to six subtopics and one consensus meeting. A panel of 16 consensus multidisciplinary committee members evaluated the literature related to 6 specific topics: (1) blood products and fluid resuscitation for hemostatic resuscitation, (2) utilization of prehospital blood products, (3) use of hemostatic adjuncts, (4) tourniquet use, (5) prehospital airway and blood pressure management, and (6) conventional coagulation tests or thromboelastography-guided resuscitation. A total of 21 recommendations are detailed in this article: 2 clinical recommendations, 14 expert consensus statements, and 5 good practice statements. The statement, the panel's voting outcome, and the rationale for each statement intend to give pediatric trauma providers the latest evidence and guidance to care for pediatric trauma patients experiencing hemorrhagic shock. With a broad multidisciplinary representation, the Pediatric Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock Consensus Conference systematically evaluated the literature and developed clinical recommendations, expert consensus, and good practice statements concerning topics in traumatically injured pediatric patients with hemorrhagic shock.

Traumatic injury is the leading cause of death in children and adolescents. Hemorrhagic shock remains a common and preventable cause of death in the pediatric trauma patients. A paucity of high-quality evidence is available to guide specific aspects of hemorrhage control in this population. We sought to identify high priority research topics for the care of pediatric trauma patients in hemorrhagic shock.A panel of 16 consensus multidisciplinary committee members from the Pediatric Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock Consensus Conference developed research priorities for addressing knowledge gaps in the care of injured children and adolescents in hemorrhagic shock. These ideas were informed by a systematic review of topics in this area and a discussion of these areas in the consensus conference. Research priorities were synthesized along themes and prioritized by anonymous voting.Eleven research priorities were identified by the consensus committee that warrant additional investigation. Areas of proposed study included well-designed clinical trials and evaluations, including increasing the speed and accuracy of identifying and treating hemorrhagic shock, defining the role of whole blood and tranexamic acid use, and assessment of the utility and appropriate use of viscoelastic techniques during early resuscitation. The committee recommended the need to standardize essential definitions, data elements, and data collection to facilitate research in this area.Research gaps remain in many areas related to the care of hemorrhagic shock after pediatric injury. Addressing these gaps is needed to develop improved evidence-based recommendations for the care of pediatric trauma patients in hemorrhagic shock.N/A.

IMPORTANCE: The clinical significance of gangrenous, suppurative, or exudative (GSE) findings is poorly characterized in children with nonperforated appendicitis. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether GSE findings in children with nonperforated appendicitis are associated with increased risk of surgical site infections and resource utilization. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This multicenter cohort study used data from the Appendectomy Targeted Database of the American College of Surgeons Pediatric National Surgical Quality Improvement Program, which were augmented with operative report data obtained by supplemental medical record review. Data were obtained from 15 hospitals participating in the Eastern Pediatric Surgery Network (EPSN) research consortium. The study cohort comprised children (aged ≤18 years) with nonperforated appendicitis who underwent appendectomy from July 1, 2015, to June 30, 2020. EXPOSURES: The presence of GSE findings was established through standardized, keyword-based audits of operative reports by EPSN surgeons. Interrater agreement for the presence or absence of GSE findings was evaluated in a random sample of 900 operative reports. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The primary outcome was 30-day postoperative surgical site infections (incisional and organ space infections). Secondary outcomes included rates of hospital revisits, postoperative abdominal imaging, and postoperative length of stay. Multivariable mixed-effects regression was used to adjust measures of association for patient characteristics and clustering within hospitals. RESULTS: Among 6133 children with nonperforated appendicitis, 867 (14.1%) had GSE findings identified from operative report review (hospital range, 4.2%-30.2%; P

To present consensus statements and supporting literature for plasma and platelet transfusions in critically ill children following noncardiac surgery and critically ill children undergoing invasive procedures outside the operating room from the Transfusion and Anemia EXpertise Initiative - Control/Avoidance of Bleeding.Systematic review and consensus conference of international, multidisciplinary experts in platelet and plasma transfusion management of critically ill children.Not applicable.Critically ill children undergoing invasive procedures outside of the operating room or noncardiac surgery.None.A panel of 10 experts developed evidence-based and, when evidence was insufficient, expert-based statements for plasma and platelet transfusions in critically ill children following noncardiac surgery or undergoing invasive procedures outside of the operating room. These statements were reviewed and ratified by the 29 Transfusion and Anemia EXpertise Initiative-Control/Avoidance of Bleeding experts. A systematic review was conducted using MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases, from inception to December 2020. Consensus was obtained using the Research and Development/University of California, Los Angeles Appropriateness Method. Results were summarized using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation method. We developed eight expert consensus statements focused on the critically ill child following noncardiac surgery and 10 expert consensus statements on the critically ill child undergoing invasive procedures outside the operating room.Evidence regarding plasma and platelet transfusion in critically ill children in this area is very limited. The Transfusion and Anemia EXpertise Initiative-Control/Avoidance of Bleeding Consensus Conference developed 18 pediatric specific consensus statements regarding plasma and platelet transfusion management in these critically ill pediatric populations.

Introduction Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) was declared a pandemic in March 2020. States issued stay-at-home orders and hospitals cancelled non-emergent surgeries. During this time, we anecdotally noticed more admissions for perforated appendicitis. Therefore, we hypothesized that during the months following the COVID-19 pandemic declaration, more children were presenting with perforated appendicitis. Materials and Methods This is a retrospective cohort study reviewing pediatric patients admitted at a single institution with acute and/or perforated appendicitis between October 2019 to May 2020. Interval appendectomies were excluded. COVID-19 months were designated as March, April, and May 2020. Additional analysis of March, April, and May 2019 was performed for comparison purposes. Analyzed data included demographics, symptoms, white blood cell count, imaging findings, procedures performed, and perforation status. Statistical analysis was performed. Results During the study period, 285 patients were admitted with the diagnosis of acute appendicitis with 95 patients being perforated. We identified a significant increase in perforated appendicitis cases in the three COVID-19 months compared with the preceding five months (45.6% vs 26.4%; P

To evaluate whether redosing antibiotics within an hour of incision is associated with a reduction in incisional surgical site infection (iSSI) in children with appendicitis.Existing data remain conflicting as to whether children with appendicitis receiving antibiotics at diagnosis benefit from antibiotic redosing prior to incision.This was a multicenter retrospective cohort study using data from the Pediatric National Surgical Quality Improvement Program augmented with antibiotic utilization and operative report data obtained though supplemental chart review. Children undergoing appendectomy at 14 hospitals participating in the Eastern Pediatric Surgery Network from 7/2016-6/2020 who received antibiotics upon diagnosis of appendicitis between 1-6 hours prior to incision were included. Multivariable logistic regression was used to compare odds of iSSI in those who were and were not redosed with antibiotics within one hour of incision, adjusting for patient demographics, disease severity, antibiotic agents, and hospital-level clustering of events.3,533 children from 14 hospitals were included. Overall, 46.5% were redosed (hospital range: 1.8%-94.4%, P0.001) and iSSI rates were similar between groups (redosed: 1.2% vs. non-redosed: 1.3%; OR 0.84, [95%CI 0.39-1.83]). In subgroup analyses, redosing was associated with lower iSSI rates when cefoxitin was used as the initial antibiotic (redosed: 1.0% vs. non-redosed: 2.5%; OR 0.38, [95%CI 0.17-0.84]), but no benefit was found with other antibiotic regimens, longer periods between initial antibiotic administration and incision, or with increased disease severity.Redosing of antibiotics within one hour of incision in children who received their initial dose within 6 hours of incision was not associated with reduction in risk of incisional site infection unless cefoxitin was used as the initial antibiotic.

Purpose Diversity in the physician workforce remains a priority in healthcare as it has been shown to improve outcomes. Decisions for choosing specific fields in medicine are partly influenced by mentors, which tend to be the same sex or ethnicity. Females are starting to outnumber males in medical school and minorities are targeted for recruitment. We hypothesized that diversity in pediatric surgery has increased over time. Methods The recently published A Genealogy of North American Pediatric Surgery was utilized to identify graduating pediatric surgery fellows from 1981 to 2018. Organization websites were used to identify past and current leaders. A web-based analysis, including online facial recognition software, was performed. A year-to-year and decade-to-decade demographic comparison was completed. Results 1217 pediatric surgery fellows graduated between 1981 and 2018. When comparing graduates from the first and last decades, an increase from 16.9% to 39.5% for female graduates was observed (p = 0.046). A significant increase in nonwhite graduates was seen for all races (p Conclusion There was a significant increase in diversity in pediatric surgery fellowship graduates. There were increasing trends in female graduates and all nonwhite racial groups. Focusing on enhancing the pipeline and mentoring underrepresented minorities will continue to enhance this trend for the field of pediatric surgery. Level of Evidence III; Retrospective Review.

Massive transfusion in pediatric patients is infrequent but associated with much higher mortality than in adults. Blood transfusion and hematology has conceptualized ideas such as blood failure and the interplay of the blood-endothelium interface to understand coagulopathy in the context of hemorrhagic shock. Researchers are still searching for an appropriate definition of what constitutes a pediatric massive transfusion. There is no universally accepted protocol for massive transfusion and how to address the many complications that can arise. Pharmacologic adjuncts to resuscitation may prove beneficial in reducing coagulopathy during pediatric massive transfusion, but high-quality evidence has not yet emerged.

Peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx-2) is a critical antioxidant protein in red blood cells (RBC). Prx-2 is oxidized to a disulfide covalently-bound dimer by H(2)O(2), and then reduced back by the NADPH dependent thioredoxin – thioredoxin reductase system. Reduction of oxidized Prx-2 is relatively slow in RBCs. Since Prx-2 is highly abundant, Prx-2s’ peroxidase catalytic cycle is not considered to be limiting under normal conditions. However, whether Prx-2 recycling becomes limiting when RBCs are exposed to stress is not known. Using three different model systems characterized by increased oxidative damage to RBCs spanning the physiologic (endogenous RBCs of different ages), therapeutic (cold-stored RBCs in blood banks) and pathologic (RBCs from sickle cell disease (SCD) patients and humanized SCD mice) spectrum, basal levels of Prx-2 oxidation and Prx-2 recycling kinetics after addition of H(2)O(2) were determined. Reduction of oxidized Prx-2 was significantly slower in older versuin older versus younger RBCs, in RBCs stored for 4-5 weeks compared to 1 week, and in RBC from pediatric SCD patients compared to RBCs from control non-SCD patients. Similarly, the rate of Prx-2 recycling was slower in humanized SCD mice compared to WT mice. Treatment of RBC with carbon monoxide (CO) to limit heme-peroxidase activity had no effect on Prx-2 recycling kinetics. Treatment with glucose attenuated slowed Prx-2 recycling in older RBCs and SCD RBCs, but not stored RBCs. In conclusion, reduction of oxidized Prx-2 can be further slowed in RBCs, which may limit the protection afforded by this antioxidant protein in settings associated with erythrocyte stress.

Case number requirements by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) have recently changed in general surgery residency and pediatric surgery fellowship. Overall, pediatric surgery fellowship case volumes remain high, but there may be limited exposure to many index cases. We hypothesize that pediatric antireflux surgery is decreasing nationally, and this trend is independent of the fluctuating number of pediatric surgery fellows.A review of publicly available ACGME case reports from 2003 to 2018 was performed. Both open and laparoscopic antireflux surgery cases were evaluated. Analyzed data included average case number per fellow, minimum and maximum case numbers, and number of fellows each year. Simple and multiple linear regression analyses were performed.We identified a significant relationship (P 0.001) between the total number of antireflux procedures and the years of operation. The slope coefficient was -1.45, meaning the number of operations decreased by an average of 1.45 per year from 2003 to 2018 . The number of fellows fluctuated during this time period (range: 24-45). With multiple linear regression analysis, we found that the number of fellows did not affect the decline of antireflux surgery seen over the years (P = 0.91).Case numbers continue to be an important topic in ACGME discussions for surgical residency and subspecialty fellowships. Our review has shown a national decline in the number of pediatric antireflux surgeries performed in pediatric surgery fellowship. Identifying additional trends in surgical management of diseases may aid in the evolution of the pediatric surgery curriculum.

Objective To address the clinical and regulatory challenges of optimal primary endpoints for bleeding patients by developing consensus-based recommendations for primary clinical outcomes for pivotal trials in patients within 6 categories of significant bleeding, (1) traumatic injury, (2) intracranial hemorrhage, (3) cardiac surgery, (4) gastrointestinal hemorrhage, (5) inherited bleeding disorders, and (6) hypoproliferative thrombocytopenia. Background A standardized primary outcome in clinical trials evaluating hemostatic products and strategies for the treatment of clinically significant bleeding will facilitate the conduct, interpretation, and translation into clinical practice of hemostasis research and support alignment among funders, investigators, clinicians, and regulators. Methods An international panel of experts was convened by the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute and the United States Department of Defense on September 23 and 24, 2019. For patients suffering hemorrhagic shock, the 26 trauma working-group members met for almost a year, utilizing biweekly phone conferences and then an in-person meeting, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of previous high quality studies. The selection of the recommended primary outcome was guided by goals of patient-centeredness, expected or demonstrated sensitivity to beneficial treatment effects, biologic plausibility, clinical and logistical feasibility, and broad applicability. Conclusions For patients suffering hemorrhagic shock, and especially from truncal hemorrhage, the recommended primary outcome was 3 to 6-hour all-cause mortality, chosen to coincide with the physiology of hemorrhagic death and to avoid bias from competing risks. Particular attention was recommended to injury and treatment time, as well as robust assessments of multiple safety related outcomes.

Malnutrition in critically ill patients is common in neonates and children, including those that receive extracorporeal life support (ECLS). We hypothesize that nutritional adequacy is highly variable, overall nutritional adequacy is poor, and enteral nutrition is underutilized in this population.A retrospective study of neonates and children (age18 y) receiving ECLS at 5 centers from 2012 to 2014 was performed. Demographic, clinical, and outcome data were analyzed. Continuous variables are presented as median [IQR]. Adequate nutrition was defined as meeting 66% of daily caloric goals during ECLS support.Two hundred and eighty three patients received ECLS; the median age was 12 d [3 d, 16.4 y] and 47% were male. ECLS categories were neonatal pulmonary 33.9%, neonatal cardiac 25.1%, pediatric pulmonary 17.7%, and pediatric cardiac 23.3%. The predominant mode was venoarterial (70%). Mortality was 41%. Pre-ECLS enteral and parenteral nutrition was present in 80% and 71.5% of patients, respectively. The median percentage days of adequate caloric and protein nutrition were 50% [0, 78] and 67% [22, 86], respectively. The median percentage days with adequate caloric and protein nutrition by the enteral route alone was 22% [0, 65] and 0 [0, 50], respectively. Gastrointestinal complications occurred in 19.7% of patients including hemorrhage (4.2%), enterocolitis (2.5%), intra-abdominal hypertension or compartment syndrome (0.7%), and perforation (0.4%).Although nutritional delivery during ECLS is adequate, the use of enteral nutrition is low despite relatively infrequent observed gastrointestinal complications.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric trauma patients sustaining blunt abdominal trauma (BAT) with intra-abdominal injury (IAI) are frequently admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). This study was performed to identify predictors for ICU admission following BAT. METHODS: Prospective study of children (< 16 years) who presented to 14 Level-One Pediatric Trauma Centers following BAT over a 1-year period. Patients were categorized as ICU or non-ICU patients. Data collected included vitals, physical exam findings, laboratory results, imaging, and traumatic injuries. A multivariable hierarchical logistic regression model was used to identify predictors of ICU admission. Predictive ability of the model was assessed via tenfold cross-validated area under the receiver operating characteristic curves (cvAUC). RESULTS: Included were 2,182 children with 21% (n = 463) admitted to the ICU. On univariate analysis, ICU patients were associated with abnormal age-adjusted shock index, increased injury severity scores (ISS), lower Glasgow coma scores (GCS), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and severe solid organ injury (SOI). With multivariable logistic regression, factors associated with ICU admission were severe trauma (ISS > 15), anemia (hematocrit < 30), severe TBI (GCS < 8), cervical spine injury, skull fracture, and severe solid organ injury. The cvAUC for the multivariable model was 0.91 (95% CI 0.88–0.92). CONCLUSION: Severe solid organ injury and traumatic brain injury, in association with multisystem trauma, appear to drive ICU admission in pediatric patients with BAT. These results may inform the design of a trauma bay prediction rule to assist in optimizing ICU resource utilization after BAT. STUDY DESIGN: Prognosis study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 1.

Introduction: Pediatric foreign body ingestion remains a common reason for emergency department (ED) visits. Button battery ingestion is an established surgical emergency, requiring immediate remov...

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/withdrawalpolicy). This article has been retracted at the request of the authors because of an error involving the dataset which doubled the reported sample size, thereby invalidating the analysis. The authors reported this error immediately upon discovering the problem. The authors regret the error.

INTRODUCTION: Biliary dyskinesia (BD) is a common indication for pediatric cholecystectomy. While diagnosis is primarily based on diminished gallbladder ejection fraction (GB-EF), work-up and management in pediatrics is controversial. METHODS: We conducted a multi-institutional retrospective review of children undergoing cholecystectomy for BD to compare perioperative work-up and outcomes. RESULTS: Six hundred seventy-eight patients across 16 institutions were included. There was no significant difference in gender, age, or BMI between institutions. Most patients were white (86.3%), non-Hispanic (79.9%), and had private insurance (55.2%). Gallbladder ejection fraction (EF) was reported in 84.5% of patients, and 44.8% had an EF < 15%. 30.7% of patients were initially seen by pediatric surgeons, 31.3% by pediatric gastroenterologists, and 23.4% by the emergency department with significant variability between institutions (p < 0.001). Symptoms persisted in 35.3% of patients post-operatively with a median follow-up of 21 days (IQR 13, 34). On multivariate analysis, only non-white race and the presence of psychiatric comorbidities were associated with increased risk of post-operative symptoms. CONCLUSION: There is significant variability in evaluation and follow-up both before and after cholecystectomy for BD. Prospective research with standardized data collection and follow-up is needed to develop and validate optimal care pathways for pediatric patients with suspected BD. STUDY TYPE: Case Series, Retrospective Review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV.

Injury to the kidney from either blunt or penetrating trauma is the most common urinary tract injury. Children are at higher risk of renal injury from blunt trauma than adults, but no pediatric renal trauma guidelines have been established. The authors reviewed the literature to guide clinicians in the appropriate methods of management of pediatric renal trauma.Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation methodology was used to aid with the development of these evidence-based practice management guidelines. A systematic review of the literature including citations published between 1990 and 2016 was performed. Fifty-one articles were used to inform the statements presented in the guidelines. When possible, a meta-analysis with forest plots was created, and the evidence was graded.When comparing nonoperative management versus operative management in hemodynamically stable pediatric patient with blunt renal trauma, evidence suggests that there is a reduced rate of renal loss and blood transfusion in patients managed nonoperatively. We found that in pediatric patients with high-grade American Association for the Surgery of Trauma grade III-V (AAST III-V) renal injuries and ongoing bleeding or delayed bleeding, angioembolization has a decreased rate of renal loss compared with surgical intervention. We found the rate of posttraumatic renal hypertension to be 4.2%.Based on the completed meta-analyses and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation profile, we are making the following recommendations: (1) In pediatric patients with blunt renal trauma of all grades, we strongly recommend nonoperative management versus operative management in hemodynamically stable patients. (2) In hemodynamically stable pediatric patients with high-grade (AAST grade III-V) renal injuries, we strongly recommend angioembolization versus surgical intervention for ongoing or delayed bleeding. (3) In pediatric patients with renal trauma, we strongly recommend routine blood pressure checks to diagnose hypertension. This review of the literature reveals limitations and the need for additional research on diagnosis and management of pediatric renal trauma.Guidelines study, level III.

The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) regulates the general surgery residency curriculum. Case volume remains a priority as recent concerns surrounding a lack of proficiency for certain surgical cases have circulated. We hypothesize that there is a significant decrease in pediatric surgery case numbers during general surgery residency despite residents meeting the minimum case requirements.We reviewed publicly available ACGME case reports for general surgery residency from 1999 to 2018. Cases are classified as Surgeon Chief or Surgeon Junior. Analyzed data included case classifications, number of residents, and number of residency programs. Simple linear regression analysis was performed.We identified a significant decrease in total number of logged pediatric surgery cases over the past 20 years (p0.001). Nearly 60% of cases were logged under a single category - inguinal/umbilical hernia. From the past five years, pyloric stenosis was the only other category with an average of greater than two cases logged (range 2.1-2.8).We identified a significant decrease in total pediatric surgery case numbers during general surgery residency from 1999 to 2018. Though meeting set requirements, overall case variety was limited. With minimal number of cases required by the ACGME, graduating general surgery residents may lack proficiency in simple pediatric surgery cases.

Background/Purpose Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) is difficult in neonates for several reasons, including problems with catheter placement and maintenance. We sought to compare outcomes between standard hemodialysis catheters (HDC) and 6Fr-tunneled central venous catheters (TC-6Fr). Methods We evaluated neonates who received CRRT from December 2013 – January 2018. All patients received CRRT with the Aquadex (Baxter Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota) circuit. Data regarding patient demographics, CRRT indication, catheter days, reason for removal, and catheter-specific complications were analyzed. Results Forty-six catheters were placed in 26 neonates; nine of these were 6Fr-tunneled catheters. The median age and mean weight at CRRT initiation was 9.5 days (IQR 4–31) and 3.5 kg (+/- 0.6 kg), respectively. TC-6Fr lasted longer (median of 28 days vs 10 days, p = 0.02), required fewer revisions (0 vs 0.16/10 catheter days) and were less commonly removed due to bleeding complications (0% vs 10.8%), occlusion (11.1% vs 18.9%), or malposition (0% vs 8.1%); none of these differences were statistically significant. TC-6Fr were associated with higher infection rates (33.3% vs 0%, p = 0.01) than HDC. Conclusions TC-6Fr use resulted in less need for catheter revisions and provided longer-lasting vascular access, which may influence infection rates. This catheter provides neonates in need of CRRT more reliable vascular access. Level of evidence : III.

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between timing and volume of crystalloid before blood products and mortality, hypothesizing that earlier transfusion and decreased crystalloid before transfusion would be associated with improved outcomes. METHODS A multi-institutional prospective observational study of pediatric trauma patients younger than 18 years, transported from the scene of injury with elevated age-adjusted shock index on arrival, was performed from April 2018 to September 2019. Volume and timing of prehospital, emergency department, and initial admission resuscitation were assessed including calculation of 20 ± 10 mL/kg crystalloid boluses overall and before transfusion. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards and logistic regression models identified factors associated with mortality and extended intensive care, ventilator, and hospital days. RESULTS In 712 children at 24 trauma centers, mean age was 7.6 years, median (interquartile range) Injury Severity Score was 9 (2-20), and in-hospital mortality was 5.3% (n = 38). There were 311 patients(43.7%) who received at least one crystalloid bolus and 149 (20.9%) who received blood including 65 (9.6%) with massive transfusion activation. Half (53.3%) of patients who received greater than one crystalloid bolus required transfusion. Patients who received blood first (n = 41) had shorter median time to transfusion (19.8 vs. 78.0 minutes, p = 0.005) and less total fluid volume (50.4 vs. 86.6 mL/kg, p = 0.033) than those who received crystalloid first despite similar Injury Severity Score (median, 22 vs. 27, p = 0.40). On multivariable analysis, there was no association with mortality (p = 0.51); however, each crystalloid bolus after the first was incrementally associated with increased odds of extended ventilator, intensive care unit, and hospital days (all p < 0.05). Longer time to transfusion was associated with extended ventilator duration (odds ratio, 1.11; p = 0.04). CONCLUSION Resuscitation with greater than one crystalloid bolus was associated with increased need for transfusion and worse outcomes including extended duration of mechanical ventilation and hospitalization in this prospective study. These data support a crystalloid-sparing, early transfusion approach for resuscitation of injured children. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Therapeutic, level IV.

Trauma is the leading cause of pediatric and adolescent morbidity and mortality. Firearm-related injuries and deaths contribute substantially to the overall disease burden. This study described the intent, location, demographics, and outcomes of a nationally representative pediatric population with firearm injuries. We hypothesized that younger patients would have a higher percentage of unintentional and self-inflicted injuries with associated higher mortality rates.The National Trauma Data Bank, maintained by the American College of Surgeons, from 2010 to 2016 was utilized. All pediatric patients (0-19 y) with firearm injuries who had complete data were analyzed for mechanism, location, demographics, and outcomes. Basic descriptive statistics were used to compare subgroups. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was applied to investigate risk factors for firearm injury-caused mortality.In the study period, 46,039 pediatric patients sustained firearm injuries (median age = 17 y). Males, Blacks, ages 15-19, and the Southern region were the most common injured demographics. However, subgroup analysis showed the demographics differ for self-inflicted and unintentional firearm injuries, which had significantly higher White patients (66.6% and 47.9%, respectively; P 0.001). Nearly 76% of injuries were related to assaults, 14% were unintentional, 5% were self-inflicted, and 5% were undetermined. The overall mortality was nearly 12%. The youngest population had higher proportion of unintentional injuries and highest mortality rate when compared with other classifications of intent (P 0.001).Pediatric firearm injuries have high mortality, especially in the youngest populations. Age-tailored prevention strategies, such as strict child access prevention laws and enforced gun storage violations, may help in reducing firearm injuries and improving health outcomes.

Pediatric surgery is a relatively new specialty and has evolved significantly since its inception. William Ladd is considered the father of Pediatric Surgery. He became the Surgeon In-Chief at Boston Children’s Hospital in 1927 and established the first pediatric surgery training program in 1941. Today, there are 58 training programs in the United States and Canada. Pediatric surgeons were initially trained to address all surgical problems in children. With the establishment of other pediatric surgical subspecialties including Otolaryngology, Neurosurgery, Urology, and Orthopedics, the clinical scope of practice of a pediatric surgeon has narrowed [1]. However pediatric surgery remains one of the most broad and diverse surgical specialties by treating conditions at the fetal stage into adulthood; and includes aspects of surgical oncology, vascular surgery, GI surgery, trauma surgery, and thoracic surgery.

Background Machine-learning can elucidate complex relationships/provide insight to important variables for large datasets. This study aimed to develop an accurate model to predict neonatal surgical site infections (SSI) using different statistical methods. Methods The 2012–2015 National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric for neonates was utilized for development and validations models. The primary outcome was any SSI. Models included different algorithms: full multiple logistic regression (LR), a priori clinical LR, random forest classification (RFC), and a hybrid model (combination of clinical knowledge and significant variables from RF) to maximize predictive power. Results 16,842 patients (median age 18 days, IQR 3–58) were included. 542 SSIs (4%) were identified. Agreement was observed for multiple covariates among significant variables between models. Area under the curve for each model was similar (full model 0.65, clinical model 0.67, RF 0.68, hybrid LR 0.67); however, the hybrid model utilized the fewest variables (18). Conclusions The hybrid model had similar predictability as other models with fewer and more clinically relevant variables. Machine-learning algorithms can identify important novel characteristics, which enhance clinical prediction models.

OBJECTIVES: To present the recommendations and supporting literature for RBC transfusions in critically ill children with bleeding developed by the Pediatric Critical Care Transfusion and Anemia Expertise Initiative.DESIGN: Consensus conference series of international, multidisciplinary experts in RBC transfusion management of critically ill children.METHODS: The panel of 38 experts developed evidence-based and, when evidence was lacking, expert-based clinical recommendations as well as research priorities for RBC transfusions in critically ill children. The bleeding subgroup included five experts. Electronic searches were conducted using PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases from 1980 to May 2017. Agreement was obtained using the Research and Development/UCLA Appropriateness Method. Results were summarized using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation method.RESULTS: Transfusion and Anemia Expertise Initiative Consensus Conference experts developed a total of six recommendations focused on transfusion in the critically ill child with acute bleeding. In critically ill children with nonlife-threatening bleeding, we recommend giving a RBC transfusion for a hemoglobin concentration less than 5 g/dL, and be considered for a hemoglobin concentration between 5 and 7 g/dL. In critically ill children with hemorrhagic shock, we suggest that RBCs, plasma and platelets transfusion ratio between 2:1:1 to 1:1:1 until the bleeding is no longer life-threatening. We recommend future studies to develop physiologic and laboratory measures to indicate the need for RBC transfusions, and to determine if goal directed hemostatic resuscitation improves survival. Finally, we recommend future studies to determine if low titer group O whole blood is more efficacious and safe compared with reconstituted whole blood in children with hemorrhagic shock.CONCLUSIONS: The Transfusion and Anemia Expertise Initiative Consensus Conference developed pediatric specific recommendations regarding RBC transfusion management in the critically ill child with acute bleeding, as well as recommendations to help guide future research priorities.

Decrease of plasma activity of ADAMTS13, a metalloenzyme that cleaves von Willebrand factor (VWF) and prevents adhesion and aggregation of platelets, has been reported early after onset of systemic inflammation resulting from infections and after severe trauma. Here, we determined whether trauma-induced systemic (sterile) inflammation would be associated with a reduction of plasma ADAMTS13 activity in paediatric patients and its association with disease severity and outcome. Paediatric patients (n = 106) with severe trauma at a level 1 paediatric trauma centre between 2014 and 2016 were prospectively enrolled. Blood samples were collected upon arrival and at 24 hours and analysed for plasma levels of ADAMTS13 activity, VWF antigen, collagen binding activity, human neutrophil peptides (HNP) 1–3, coagulation abnormalities, endothelial glycocalyx damage and clinical outcome. Plasma samples were also collected for similar measurements from 52 healthy paediatric controls who underwent elective minor surgery. The median age of patients was 9 years with 81% sustaining blunt trauma. The median injury severity score was 22 and the mortality rate was 11%. Plasma levels of ADAMTS13 activity were significantly lower and plasma levels of VWF antigen and HNP 1–3 proteins were significantly higher for paediatric trauma patients on admission and at 24 hours when compared with controls. Finally, the lowest plasma ADAMTS13 activity was found in patients who died from their injuries. We conclude that relative plasma deficiency of ADAMTS13 activity may be associated with more severe traumatic injury, significant endothelial glycocalyx damage, coagulation abnormalities and mortality after severe trauma in paediatric patients.

BACKGROUND The release of damage-associated molecular pattern molecules in the extracellular space secondary to injury has been shown to cause systemic activation of the coagulation system and endothelial cell damage. We hypothesized that pediatric trauma patients with increased levels of histone-complexed DNA fragments (hcDNA) would have evidence of coagulopathy and endothelial damage that would be associated with poor outcomes. METHODS We conducted a prospective observational study of 149 pediatric trauma patients and 62 control patients at two level 1 pediatric trauma centers from 2013 to 2016. Blood samples were collected upon arrival and at 24 h, analyzed for hcDNA, coagulation abnormalities, endothelial damage, and clinical outcome. Platelet aggregation was assessed with impedance aggregometry (Multiplate) and coagulation parameters were assessed by measuring prothrombin time ratio in plasma and the use of viscoelastic techniques (Rotational Thromboelastometry) in whole blood. RESULTS The median age was 8.3 years, the median injury severity score (ISS) was 20, and overall mortality was 10%. Significantly higher levels of hcDNA were found on admission in patients with severe injury (ISS > 25), coagulopathy, and/or abnormal platelet aggregation. Patients with high hcDNA levels also had significant elevations in plasma levels of syndecan-1, suggesting damage to the endothelial glycocalyx. Finally, significantly higher hcDNA levels were found in non-survivors. CONCLUSION hcDNA is released following injury and correlates with coagulopathy, endothelial glycocalyx damage, and poor clinical outcome early after severe pediatric trauma. These results indicate that hcDNA may play an important role in development of coagulation abnormalities and endothelial glycocalyx damage in children following trauma.

Pediatric intra-abdominal injuries (IAI) from blunt abdominal trauma (BAT) rarely require emergent intervention. For those children undergoing procedural intervention, our aim was to understand the timing and indications for operation and angiographic embolization.We prospectively enrolled children younger than 16 years after BAT at 14 Level I Pediatric Trauma Centers over a 1-year period. Patients with IAI who received an intervention (IAI-I) were compared with those who did not receive an intervention using descriptive statistics and univariate analysis; p less than 0.05 was considered significant.Two hundred sixty-one (11.9%) of 2,188 patients had IAI. Forty-five (17.2%) IAI patients received an acute procedural intervention (38 operations, seven angiographic embolization). The mean age for patients requiring intervention was 7.1 ± 4.1 years and not different from the population. Most patients (88.9%) with IAI-I were normotensive. IAI-I patients were significantly more likely to have a mechanism of motor vehicle collision (66.7% vs. 38.9%), more likely to present as a Level I activation (44.4% vs. 26.9%), more likely to have a Glascow Coma Scale less than 14 (31.1% vs. 15.5%), and more likely to have an abnormal abdominal physical examination (93.3% vs. 65.7%) than patients that did not require acute intervention. All patients underwent computed tomography scan before intervention. Operations consisted of laparotomy (n = 21), laparoscopy converted to open (n = 11), and laparoscopy alone (n = 6). The most common surgical indications were hollow viscus injury (HVI) (11 small bowel, 10 colon, 6 small bowel/colon, 2 duodenum). All interventions for solid organ injury, including seven angioembolic procedures, occurred within 8 hours of arrival; many had hypotension and received a transfusion. Procedural interventions were more common for HVI than for solid organ injury (59.2% vs. 7.6%). Postoperative mortality from IAI was 2.6%.Acute procedural interventions for children with IAI from BAT are rare, predominantly for HVI, are performed early in the hospital course and have excellent clinical outcomes.Prognostic/epidemiologic study, level III; therapeutic study, level IV.

The utility of focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST) in children is poorly defined with considerable practice variation. Our purpose was to investigate the role of FAST for intra-abdominal injury (IAI) and IAI requiring acute intervention (IAI-I) in children after blunt abdominal trauma (BAT).We prospectively enrolled children younger than 16 years after BAT at 14 Level I pediatric trauma centers over a 1-year period. Patients who underwent FAST were compared with those that did not, using descriptive statistics and univariate analysis; p value less than 0.05 was considered significant. FAST test characteristics were performed using computed tomography (CT) and/or intraoperative findings as the gold standard.Two thousand one hundred eighty-eight children (age, 7.8 ± 4.6 years) were included. Eight hundred twenty-nine (37.9%) received a FAST, 340 of whom underwent an abdominal CT. Ninety-seven (29%) of these 340 patients had an IAI and 27 (7.9%) received an acute intervention. CT scan utilization after FAST was 41% versus 46% among those who did not receive FAST. The frequency of FAST among centers ranged from 0.84% to 94.1%. There was low correlation between FAST and CT utilization (r = -0.050, p0.001). Centers that performed FAST at a higher frequency did not have improved accuracy. The test performance of FAST for IAI was sensitivity, 27.8%; specificity, 91.4%; positive predictive value, 56.2%; negative predictive value, 76.0%; and accuracy, 73.2%. There were 81 injuries among the 70 false-negative FAST. The test performance of FAST for IAI-I was sensitivity, 44.4%; specificity, 88.5%; positive predictive value, 25.0%; negative predictive value, 94.9%; and accuracy, 85.0%. Fifteen children with a negative FAST received acute interventions. Among the 27 patients with true positive FAST examinations, 12 received intervention. All had an abnormal abdominal physical examination. No patient underwent intervention before CT scan.As currently used, FAST has a low sensitivity for IAI, misses IAI-I and rarely impacts management in pediatric BAT.Prognostic and epidemiologic study, level II; diagnostic tests or criteria study, level II; therapeutic/care management study, level III.

Background Viscoelastic monitoring (VEM), including thromboelastography (TEG) and rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM) in the setting of goal-directed hemostatic resuscitation has been shown to improve outcomes in adult trauma. The American College of Surgeons (ACS) Committee on Trauma recommends that “thromboelastography should be available at level I and level II trauma centers”. The purpose of this study is to determine the current availability and utilization of VEM in pediatric trauma. Methods After IRB and Pediatric Trauma Society (PTS) approval, a survey was administered to the current members of the PTS via Survey Monkey. The survey collected demographic information, hospital and trauma program type, volume of trauma admissions, and use and/or availability of VEM for pediatric trauma patients. Results We received 107 responses representing 77 unique hospitals. Survey respondents were: 61% physicians, 29% nurses, 6% trauma program managers, and 4% nurse practitioners/physician assistants. Over half of providers worked in a free standing children's hospital. Seventy-seven percent of respondents were from hospitals that had >200 trauma admissions/year, 42% were providers at ACS level 1 pediatric trauma centers, and 62% practiced at state level 1 designated centers. VEM was available to 63% of providers, but only 31% employed VEM in pediatric trauma patients. For those who had no VEM available, over 73% would utilize this technology if it was available. Seventy-one percent of providers continue to rely on conventional coagulation assays to monitor coagulopathy in pediatric trauma patients after admission. Conclusions While a growing body of evidence demonstrates the benefit of viscoelastic hemostatic assays in management of adult traumatic injuries, VEM during active resuscitation is infrequently used by pediatric trauma providers, even when the technology is readily available. This represents a timely and unique opportunity for quality improvement in pediatric trauma.

Robotic technology has transformed both practice and education in many adult surgical specialties; no standardized training guidelines in pediatric surgery currently exist. The purpose of our study was to assess the prevalence of robotic procedures and extent of robotic surgery education in US pediatric surgery fellowships.A deidentified survey measured utilization of the robot, perception on the utility of the robot, and its incorporation in training among the program directors of Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) pediatric surgery fellowships in the United States.Forty-one of the 47 fellowship programs (87%) responded to the survey. While 67% of respondents indicated the presence of a robot in their facility, only 26% reported its utilizing in their surgical practice. Among programs not utilizing the robot, most common reasons provided were lack of clear supportive evidence, increased intraoperative time, and incompatibility of instrument size to pediatric patients. While 58% of program directors believe that there is a future role for robotic surgery in children, only 18% indicated that robotic training should play a part in pediatric surgery education. Consequently, while over 66% of survey respondents received training in robot-assisted surgical technique, only 29% of fellows receive robot-assisted training during their fellowship.A majority of fellowships have access to a robot, but few utilize the technology in their current practice or as part of training. Further investigation is required into both the technology's potential benefits in the pediatric population and its role in pediatric surgery training.

Massive transfusion (MT) in pediatric trauma has been described in combat populations and other single institutions studies. We aim to define the incidence of MT in a large US civilian pediatric trauma population, identify predictive parameters of MT, and the mortality associated with MT.Data from the National Trauma Databank (2010-2012), a trauma registry maintained by the American College of Surgeons, were analyzed. We included pediatric trauma patients ≤14 y that underwent MT, as defined by 40 mL/kg of blood products within the first 24 h after admission. We compared the MT group with children receiving any transfusion within the same time frame. Univariate and multivariate analysis were performed.Of 356,583 pediatric trauma patients, 13,523 (4%) received any transfusion in the first 24 h and 173 (0.04%) had a MT. On multivariate analysis, factors predicting MT were: older patients (5-12: OR 2.71, P = 0.006, and ≥12: OR 5.14, P 0.001), hypothermic patients (temperature 35: OR 2.48, P 0.025), low Glasgow Coma Scale (Glasgow Coma Scale8: OR 2.82, P = 0.009), and Injury Severity Scores ≥25 (OR 2.01, P = 0.03). Overall mortality for the entire group, any transfusion group, and MT group were 2.5%, 13.6%, and 50.6%, respectively (P 0.001).MT in pediatric trauma is an uncommon event associated with a significant mortality. Patients undergoing MT are older, more likely to be hypothermic and have sustained more severe injuries as measured by traditional trauma scoring systems than transfused trauma patients.

Peripancreatic fluid collection and pseudocyst development is a common sequela following non-operative management (NOM) of pancreatic injuries in children. Our purpose was to review management strategies and assess outcomes.A multicenter, retrospective review was conducted of children treated with NOM following blunt pancreatic injury at 22 pediatric trauma centers between the years 2010 and 2015. Organized fluid collections were called "acute peripancreatic fluid collection" (APFC) if identified 4 weeks and "pseudocyst" if 4 weeks following injury. Data analysis included descriptive statistics Wilcoxon rank-sum, Kruskal-Wallis and t tests.One hundred patients with blunt pancreatic injury were identified. Median age was 8.5 years (range 1-16). Forty-two percent of patients (42/100) developed organized fluid collections: APFC 64% (27/42) and pseudocysts 36% (15/42). Median time to identification was 12 days (range 7-42). Most collections (64%, 27/42) were observed and 36% (15/42) underwent drainage: 67% (10/15) percutaneous drain, 7% (1/15) needle aspiration, and 27% (4/15) endoscopic transpapillary stent. A definitive procedure (cystogastrostomy/pancreatectomy) was required in 26% (11/42). Patients with larger collections (≥ 7.1 cm) had longer time to resolution. Comparison of outcomes in patients with observation vs drainage revealed no significant differences in TPN use (79% vs 75%, p = 1.00), hospital length of stay (15 vs 25 median days, p = 0.11), time to tolerate regular diet (12 vs 11 median days, p = 0.47), or need for definitive procedure (failure rate 30% vs 20%, p = 0.75).Following NOM of blunt pancreatic injuries in children, organized fluid collections commonly develop. If discovered early, most can be observed successfully, and drainage does not appear to improve clinical outcomes. Larger size predicts prolonged recovery.III STUDY TYPE: Case series.

Background Hepatoblastoma and Wilms tumor are the most common primary liver and kidney tumor in children, respectively, and little is documented about patient outcomes in the immediate perioperative period. The aim of this study was to analyze the short-term outcomes of pediatric patients after surgical resection for hepatoblastoma and Wilms tumor. Methods We queried the 2012-2016 ACS National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric (NSQIP-P) database for patients with hepatoblastoma who underwent liver resection and patients with Wilms tumor who underwent a partial or total nephrectomy. Patient demographics, preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative characteristics were analyzed. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine independent risk factors for unplanned reoperations. Results There were a total of 189 patients with hepatoblastoma and 586 patients with Wilms in National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric. The mean age of patients with hepatoblastoma was 3.1 y and 4.2 y in the Wilms group. Nine percent (n = 17) of patients underwent an unplanned reoperation after hepatectomy, and 4.1% (n = 24) of patients with Wilms experienced an unplanned reoperation. Over half of patients with hepatoblastoma (59.8%, n = 113) and 29.7% (n = 174) patients with Wilms tumor received a blood transfusion in the perioperative period. Patients in both groups demonstrated low rates of surgical site infections, but 6.3% (n = 12) of hepatoblastoma patients showed evidence of sepsis. Conclusions This study will allow providers to more effectively counsel families of the common morbidities in the associated perioperative period following surgical resection of either solid tumor type including the substantial risk of blood transfusion.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify an optimal definition of massive transfusion (MT) in civilian pediatric trauma. Methods Severely injured children (age ≤ 18 years, injury severity score ≥ 25) in the Trauma Quality Improvement Program research datasets 2014–2015 that received blood products were identified. Children with traumatic brain injury and non-survivable injuries were excluded. Early mortality was defined as death within 24 h and delayed mortality as death after 24 h from hospital admission. Receiver operating curves and sensitivity and specificity analysis identified an MT threshold. Continuous variables are presented as median [IQR]. Results Of the 270 included children, the overall mortality was 27% (N = 74). There were no differences in demographics or mechanism of injury between children that lived or died. Sensitivity and specificity for early mortality was optimized at a 4-h transfusion volume of 37 ml/kg. After controlling for other significant variables, a threshold of 37 ml/kg/4 h predicted the need for a hemorrhage control procedure (OR 8.60; 95% CI 4.25–17.42; p Conclusion An MTP threshold of 37 mL/kg/4 h of transfused blood products predicted the need for hemorrhage control procedures and early mortality. This threshold may provide clinicians with a timely prognostic indicator, improve research methodology, and resource utilization. Type of Study Diagnostic Test. Level of Evidence III.

Background Solid pseudopapillary neoplasms (SPPNs) comprise the majority of pediatric pancreatic neoplasms. We queried the National Cancer Database to compare pediatric and adult patients with SSPNs to examine differences in demographics, tumor characteristics, treatment, and overall survival. We aimed to determine if survival differences existed between adult and pediatric patients with SPPN. Methods The National Cancer Database (2004-2014) was reviewed, and patients were stratified by age at diagnosis: pediatric (≤21 y) and adult (≥22 y). Demographics, comorbidities, tumor characteristics, diagnostic periods, treatments, and survival rates were compared using pooled variance t-tests and chi-square, followed by multivariate Cox proportional hazard model (α = 0.05). Log-rank test was used to compare survival. Results A total of 468 patients were analyzed and categorized according to age group. Four hundred and fourteen patients were included in the survival analysis. The pediatric patients were primarily female, Caucasian, had no comorbidities, and presented with stage I disease. Race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, comorbidities, and disease stage at presentation were similar between the groups. There was no difference in time to initiation of therapy or to surgical intervention. No significant difference was found in type of surgical resection, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy utilization. Despite the similarities between groups, comparison of overall survival demonstrated improved survival of pediatric SPPN compared with adult SPPN in every pathologic stage. Conclusions These results suggest that pediatric and adult SPPNs are similar with regards to demographics, tumor characteristics, and treatment modalities. However, survival was better in children with SPPNs, which may be due to differences in tumor biology and may serve for risk stratification of prognosis.