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Most interesting is the fact that the oldest children showed greater increments in relevant constructions in the new rule (NR) than in the English rule condition. The verbal stimuli were 95 nouns which are commonly known by children of the youngest age used. Of particular interest in this study was the influence of rule familiarity and age upon increments in the subjects' production of sentences which precisely fitted the modeled rule. The performance of the subjects exposed to unfamiliar constructions supports this conclusion. Instead of abstracting a new rule from the model's productions, the subjects in these conditions apparently reordered the unfamiliar language constructions to make them correspond to language rules with which they were familiar. An inspection of the repetition errors in the NR condition indicated that most were reordered forms of the modeled NR constructions.

Every one of us began life wetting the bed and making a “mess” of diapers on a daily basis. Our parents and others then imposed some form of toilet training on us. By various means they taught us when to eliminate and when to withhold urine and feces and they insisted that we learn to comply with the mles. We were not alone. In a classic study of 22 cultures Whiting and Child (1953) concluded that toilet training is the most basic and universal target of socialization everywhere. Furthermore virtually every culture appears to succeed in toilet training 80-90% of its new members within the expected time limit. The few who remain untrained or who become trained but then relapse are said to have a disorder of elimination.

Using the cold pressor test, three experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of water temperature and labeling on three dependent measures in college women: behavioral pain tolerance (BPT), a sensory rating of the pain experience (SR) and a parallel affective rating of the experience (AR). Temperature of the cold pressor was varied as the physical factor; labels (discomfort, pain, vasoconstriction pain) were varied as the psychological factor. Experiment 1 varied only water temperature; colder temperatures led to significantly lower BPT scores and significantly higher SR and AR scores. Experiment 2 varied only labeling and demonstrated that BPT decreased and AR increased as labels became more painful-sounding; in contrast, SR was unaffected by labeling. In Experiment 3 both the psychological and physical factors were varied simultaneously. Results indicated significantly higher BPT scores as the water temperature increased and the pain label became more benign. In addition, both SR and AR were sensitive to changes in temperature, whereas only AR was affected by changes in labeling.

The relationship between transient mood phenomena and enduring personality characteristics was studied. Eighty-one women completed the NEO Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1985) and provided daily unidimensional mood ratings for 20 days. Average mood was negatively related to Neuroticism (N) and positively related to Extraversion (E). More fine-grained analyses revealed that Positive Emotions, a facet of E, was a better predictor of average mood than was the overall E factor score. The greater a facet's loading on N or E, the better it predicted average mood. Within-day mood variability (mood fluctuation) was positively related to Openness to Experience (O), particularly to the facet, Fantasy. Across-day variability (mood swing) was positively related to both E and O. No relationship was found between any of the mood variables and Agreeableness (A) or Conscientiousness (C). The 3 mood variables were virtually independent of one another, but each showed moderately high temporal stability across the 4-week period.

Every one of us began life wetting the bed and making a “mess” of diapers on a daily basis. Our parents and others then imposed some form of toilet training on us. By various means, they taught us when to eliminate and when to withhold urine and feces—and they insisted that we learn to comply with the rules. We were not alone. In a classic study of 22 cultures, Whiting and Child (1953) concluded that toilet training is the most basic and universal target of socialization everywhere. Moreover, bladder and bowel training are closely linked. That is, parents almost always begin training for urination and defecation concurrently and generally report that children stop soiling and become dry at about the same time, regardless of whether it is “early” or “late.”

The average child born today will, by age 15, have spent more time watching television than going to school. Research has shown that heavy doses of TV violence viewing are associated with the development of aggressive attitudes and behavior. TV viewing also appears to cultivate stereotypic views of gender roles and race. Finally, television commercials often capitalize on children's naivete, and also can foster and reinforce overly materialistic attitudes. All of these adverse effects can be minimized if parents restrict the amount of overall viewing, encourage some programs and discourage others, and talk to children frequently about the meaning of what they see on television.

The possibility that regularly broadcast entertainment television programs can facilitate prosocial behavior in children was investigated. Thirty first-grade children, 15 boys and 15 girls, were individually exposed to one of three half-hour television programs: a program from the Lassie series which included a dramatic example of a boy helping a dog, a program from the Lassie series devoid of such an example, or a program from the family situation comedy series, the Brady Bunch. The effects of the programming were assessed by presenting each child with a situation that required him to choose between continuing to play a game for self-gain and helping puppies in distress. Children exposed to the Lassie program with the helping scene helped for significantly more time than those exposed to either of the other programs.

An analysis of character portrayals on inter-racial television entertainment with a focus on race, sex, and social example was performed. Nine regularly broadcast programs having bi-racial representation with at least one male and one female portrayal were selected and a total of 60 characters analyzed according to eight categories of interpersonal and self-control behaviors. White males were aggressive and persistent but non-altruistic and unable to resist temptations to break the rules of society, or repair the damage they caused to others. Black males were non-aggressive, persistent, altruistic, and more likely than any other group to make reparation for injury. White females were non-aggressive, likely to make reparation for damage to others, and altruistic; they displayed resistance to temptation but little delay of gratification/task persistence. Black women exhibited the same self-control pattern as white women and also were non-aggressive, non-altruistic, and not inclined toward reparation for damage to others. Their most outstanding behavior, though, was a high level of explaining feelings to increase understanding, resolve strife, and reassure others. The over-all pattern of findings is interpreted in terms of television's maintaining and fostering stereotypes.

Dalenberg, Bierman, and Furman suggest that kindergartners' failure to employ a discounting heuristic in previous studies may be a function of inadequate understanding of the questions asked of them. Using a methodology of questioning different from previous research, Dalenberg, et al. concluded that kindergartners do use the heuristic. However, review of their 1984 data indicates little support for that conclusion. While second graders and fourth graders increasingly used the heuristic, the data provided for kindergartners more fully support prior research in which such use was weak or entirely absent. It is concluded that real and often profound changes in social cognitive processing do occur between the ages of five and ten.

This study examined the relationship between two aspects of the TAQ, identified as “worry” and “emotionality,” and performance expectancies on a college examination. For this purpose, a short Pre-examination Questionnaire was developed. As predicted, worry (W) was inversely related to performance expectancy. No relationship between expectancy and emotionality (E) was found.

The effects of response commonality, serial order of modeled responses, and vicarious punishment on young boys' recall and acceptance of 20 commodity prefereces of an adult were examined in a 2 (common dimension vs no-common dimension) × 2 (vicarious punishment vs no-vicarious consequences) × 2 (recall or acceptance test) × 5 (response-block) factorial experiment. As predicted, the presence of a common dimension resulted in improved recall of the modeled responses, vicarious punishment was more effective under common dimension than no-common dimension conditions, and a serial order effect for recall of the modeled responses was obtained. The overall pattern of results is discussed in terms of the conceptualization that imitation requires both that the observer (1) has acquired and retained the model's responses and (2) has been placed in circumstances which favor activating this learning into overt performance.

The relative fearfulness of persons representing a wide age range (13 to 85 yr.) was assessed by a self-report inventory consisting of subscales containing “realistic” and “unrealistic” fears. In general, women reported more fear than men. Age differences appeared in the form of a U-shaped pattern from adolescence to senior citizenry for realistic fears. For unrealistic fears there were no significant age differences. Highly reliable positive correlations were found between self-reported fear and social desirability. The over-all pattern of results is discussed in terms of age and sex roles in our culture.

Summary.- A 2 X 2 factorial design examined the relative influence of verbalization and modeling upon children's adoption of a self-reward standard when alone. The two treatments were found to be equally influential and additive in their effects. Further, Ss exposed to both verbalization and modeling exhibited almost perfect adherence to the standard despite a powerful incentive to deviate. Research conducted within a social learning framework (Bandura & Walters, 1963) has emphasized the role of imitation in the socialization of children. Several of these studies have demonstrated that a model's influence is substantially enhanced by his explicit verbalization of the modeled behavior (Hill, 1968; Liebert & Allen, 1967). The purpose of the present experiment was to separate verbalization and behavioral modeling and to investigate their ~elative influence on children's adoption of a self-imposed standard. Allen and Liebert (in press) recently suggested that the perceived generality of modeling cues may affect their iltformtion value and thus be one of the salient determinants of a model's effect on an observer. They argued that the more corroborative cues available, the more informative is the modeled behavior and hence the greater will be its influence. Thus, if two different modeling cues presented separately are each partially effective, the combination of both cues should further increase the probability of imitation. Allen and Liebert's findings support this view. They found that exposure to either a live or symbolic model whose actions were at variance with a stated rule produced more rule deviation than did a no-model treatment, while the combination of live and symbolic models produced the greatest deviation. Extending Allen and Liebert's informational analysis from modeling cues to other forms of training, it would be anticipated that either a social agent's verbalization of a self-reward standard or his modeling of that same standard provides sufficient information to induce some adherence to it, i.e., more than an untrained control group, when Ss subsequently perform alone with free access to rewards. Moreover, the combination of verbalization and modeling should have

Summary.--In order to determine whether, and under what circumstances, adultr would imitate their opponents in a competitive game situation when no feedback was given to either player, the effects of exper~mcntally manipulating the ciskiness of the opponent's strategy and the experience of S were examined. Both high- and low-risk opponents were imitated relative to a control group, but Ss' experience decreased imitation only when the opponent displayed high risk. Ironically, Ss pitted against a low-risk player evaluated their opponent more favorably and played less well themselves than did Ss in the high-risk opponent or control groups. There is evidence that, when performers know prior outcomes for their op ponents in a competitive situation, they will use this information in deciding whether to act imitatively. For example, O'Connell (1965) found that when college students performed competitively on a two-choice guessing task, they tended to imitate above the chance level if their opponent's responses were "correct" 80% of the time b~lt below the chance level if the opponent was "correct" only 20% of the time. However, relatively little appears to be known about the occurrence of imitation in sinlacions involving dyadic competition when the competitor receives no external feedback by which his performance can be evaluated. The primary purpose of the present study was to explore this issue. Additionally, since imitation may be dependent upon the experience or ability of the performer, with inexperienced observers being more likely to imitate a model than experienced ones (e.g., Deutsch & Gerard, 1955; Horowitz, 1966), half of the Ss were given a practice session while the remaining Ss were not. It was specifically predicted that the former, more experienced individuals would show less imitation of their opponents than would the completely inexperienced players.

The pupil size of a single S was recorded under 2 types of hypnotic suggestion: alertness instructions and traditional relaxation instructions. It was found that the size of the pupil increased significantly under alertness instructions. This result was taken as further corroboration of the hypothesis that changes in various parameters of arousal apparently associated with hypnosis may be attributed to specifiable characteristics of the instructions used rather than to stable characteristics of the “state” of hypnosis.

A study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a newly developed language training program particularly suited for the severely retarded. Designed for use with non-professional staff acting as teachers, the program contains (1) a simplified introduction to operant and modeling procedures, (2) detailed lesson plans, (3) necessary materials, and (4) instructions for testing and evaluation. Institutionalized children classified as severely and profoundly retarded were pretested and assigned to four groups, based on pretest scores. Pairs of children were matched within each group according to pretest performance, language equivalence scores, mental classification, age, sex, race, and behavior problems. One member of each matched pair was then randomly designated an experimental or control child. The experimental groups received 2 mo. of language training (each group comprising one class), with two psychiatric aides conducting all activities. As training was completed, all children were posttested. Comparison of pre- and posttest performances indicated clear treatment effects, demonstrating the potential for wide-spread institutional use of such programs.

The hypothesis that exposure to televised violence would increase the willingness of children to hurt another child was investigated. Boys and girls of two age groups (5-6 and 8-9 years) first viewed excerpts from actual television programs depicting either aggresive or nonaggressive scenes, and were then provided with an opportunity to aggress against a peer. All subjects were subsequently placed in a free play situation and the frequency of their aggressive responses observed. Results indicated that children exposed to the aggressive program engaged in longer attacks against an ostensible child victim than subjects exposed to the nonaggressive program. The aggressive program also elicited a higher level of aggressive play than the nonaggressive one, particularly among the younger boys.

I/'anderbilr University Summary.-A mute 23-yr.-old woman, diagnosed as catatonic schizophrenic, received systematic reinforcement therapy from personnel on her ward (three aides and another patient). Employing food reward and social approval, and assisted by a simple electronic device, this treatment reinstated a substantial degree of verbal communication. 6 mo, later, on an "open" ward, the patient was judged to be satisfactorily adjusted although she continued to converse only with her roommate. Among the pioneering efforts to treat hospitalized patients within an operant paradigm, several researchers suggested that systematic reward could be successfully employed to reinstate verbal behavior in mute psychotic patients (e.g., Isaacs, Thomas, & Goldiamond, 1960; Sherman, 1963). Further, more recent and extensive investigations have included rigorous control procedures (such as differential reinforcement for other behavior), thereby substantially strengthening the conclusions inferred from earlier work with mute patients (Sherman, 1965; Wilson & Walters, 1966). Thus, it may now be posited with reasonable confidence that establishing a reward contingency for verbal behavior will often be the sufficient condition for partial reinstatement of meaningful speech. Once the o~~tline of successful procedures for clinical intervention has been established, it is clearly desirable to pursue strategies which will make implementation of such techniques increasingly more economical. Thus, the present paper reports the attempted application of reinforcement therapy with a near-mute patient using aides and a non-mute patient as behavioral technicians. In addition to describing procedures for replacing professional therapists by behavioral technicians, the report also describes a device which was developed to aid the technicians' discrimination of appropriate responses and thus reduce arbitrary judgmental influences that might otherwise contaminate the procedure. Clinical and Historical Data The patient, Martha, was a 23-yr.-old white female who had been in and out of hospitals since the age of 15. At the time reinforcement procedures were instituted, she had been hospitalized continuously for 4 yr., resided in a "locked" 'Grateful acknowledgement is due to the staff and administrative personnel of Central State Hospital, whose cooperation and efforts were invaluable. The assistance of John P. Ora, who served as T during Session 1, and of Mark McSwiney, who designed and constructed the voice apparatus, is also acknowledged.

Two investigations of the relationship between “worry” ( W) and “emotionality” ( E), components of test anxiety, and performance expectancy are reported. Undergraduate and graduate students responded to a modified form of Mandler and Sarason's TAQ containing 5 W and 5 E items. W was found to be negatively related to expectancy. E was not consistently related to expectancy but varied as a function of the external cues of the testing situation.

Forty subjects in an automobile-trading game bargained with a programmed opponent. Half the subjects knew the possible range of profits for both themselves and the opponent (completely informed), while half knew only their own possible profits (incompletely informed). Within each of these information conditions, half the subjects received a first bid favorable to themselves from the opponent, while the other half received an unfavorable first bid. Favorable bids led to higher demands, both in counterbids and in contract accepted, among incompletely informed subjects, while unfavorable bids led to somewhat higher bids among completely informed subjects, though value of contract accepted was not affected. Results support the hypotheses that uninformed bargainers use opponents' bids to set their own goals, while informed bargainers use them to assess the reasonableness of the opponent's goals.

Peed and Forehand's conclusion that “a theory of vicarious consequences based upon an informational analysis of imitation has serious limitations” is questioned on several grounds. In addition to the fact that Peed and Forehand's research design is not sufficiently sensitive to warrant accepting the null hypothesis, a review of recent literature suggests that the effects Liebert and Fernandez originally predicted from an informational analysis have been obtained by other investigators. Finally, studies in which an informational heuristic has been employed in areas of observational learning other than vicarious consequences attest further to its usefulness in stimulating discovery.

The effects of task complexity and vicarious reward upon children's ability to learn a substantive educational task through modeling were investigated. After observing a model's performance, all Ss were offered direct reward for matching responses. Accuracy of imitative learning was inversely related to task complexity and facilitated by the presence of vicarious reward. However, as predicted, vicarious reward had a significant effect only for Ss in the high-complexity condition, tended to enhance the performance of Ss in the moderate-complexity condition, and had negligible effects for Ss exposed to the low-complexity task. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that vicarious and direct reward may operate additively, with the former serving primarily to enhance Ss' attention to the relevant modeling cues.

The case study reported in this paper focuses on the relationship between bedwetting and misconduct after the implementation of behavior therapy for both problems. A 6 built1 2 -year-old girl was treated for enuresis and subsequently for conduct problems (lying, aggressiveness). After both bedwetting and misconduct displayed substantial and stable improvement, it was found that occasional nightly relapses in bedwetting were strongly associated with the occurence of misconduct the following day. Implications of this finding are discussed.

Publisher Summary According to most dictionaries, the adjective moral means pertaining to or concerned with right conduct. Thus, abstractly, an act is moral if it conforms to rules or standards of right conduct, immoral if it does not conform to rules of right conduct, amoral if it is without moral quality, that is, neither moral nor immoral. This chapter discusses moral development in detail by highlighting the aspects of human thought and action that fall within the moral sphere. It also describes the structural approach to moral development and two major structural propositions that, if accepted, would have far-reaching consequences for our understanding of moral development and the nature of human morality generally. The chapter also presents a functional approach to moral development.