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This presentation discusses a collaborative effort of two Fraunhofer institutes to develop a lithography model that simulates the fabrication of blazed gratings using grayscale lithography. The model is calibrated with experimental data of blazed grating profiles. The complete process of modelling and calibration has been performed using the Research and Development lithography simulator Dr.LiTHO. To emulate the grayscale exposure of blazed gratings in a LED-based micro-image stepper with Dr.LiTHO a thin mask with a linear variation of the mask transmission and corresponding distribution of exposure dose was used. The resulting photoresist profiles are obtained with a standard model for Diazonaphthoquinone (DNQ) photoresistas. The calibration of simulated and experimental profile data of blazed gratings is performed using Dr.LiTHO’s inbuilt optimizer - Pythmea. The difference between experimental and simulated profile shapes is expressed by an areaFit. Minimization of this areaFit versus photoresist parameters and correlation analysis help to identify the most appropriate model parameters. The extendibility of the model to larger ranges of blazed grating pitches and grayscale exposures of other microstructures such as arrays of microlenses is discussed. Selected examples demonstrate the application of the model for the optimization of dose distributions for grayscale exposures to improve obtained profile shapes.

Snapshot multispectral imaging is a rising non-invasive and contact-free analysis method and technology to discriminate or identify objects based on their spectral characteristics. We demonstrate a versatile system approach for compact and real-time capable snapshot cameras for the visible (VIS) and the near-infrared (NIR) or the short-wave infrared (SWIR) wavelength range based on a micro-optical multi-aperture system and various spectral filter approaches. In addition, the manufacturing, the calibration, and the limitations of the demonstration systems are described.

We describe the design and set-up an array of micro-spectrometers for parallel sensing. The approach utilizes a prism – grating combination to obtain a linear light path and to achieve a high packing density. This yields 2’000 micro spectrometers of 6 mm length only when working with a 4/3” CCD image sensor.

Micro-optical array projectors are discussed as replacement for structured illumination in applications with critical space requirements. The concept bases on the fly’s eye condenser principle and a well-defined buried array of micro-dia. Their optical performance benefits from etendue conservation and the large depth of field of applied short focal lenses. As an established technique to generate microlens profiles, thermal reflow of binary patterned photoresist is known for more than three decades. This approach leads to lens arrays with filling factors up to ~90% when used in hexagonal arrangement. Further increment requires direct writing methods such as grayscale lithography. Recently a LED based projection stepper-like lithography system became competitive, because it allows structure depths beyond 50 microns. It utilizes an LCoS micro-imager as variable 8-bit reticle and a high dynamic dosage controlled illumination. This paper represents the evaluation of the technique for the generation of refractive lens profiles by means of metrology and optical performance of micro-optical array projectors. Micro-array projectors based on circular lenslets will be compared, followed by the analysis of closely packed square-shaped lenslets. The aim is to understand the impact of lens shape deviation, conical constant or statistical distribution of lens properties like sag height, radius of curvature on the projection. A correlation of imperfections and quality loss due to scattering, aberrations, and mismatch of images in the overlay of different projectorlets will be given. The work concludes with an outlook on further developments in mastering micro-optical profiles for illumination application.

An array of micro spectrometers for parallel spectral sensing is designed, set up and tested. It utilizes a planar prism grating combination to obtain an almost linear optical system of 6 mm length only. Arranging such micro spectrometers in an array configuration yields 2'000 spectrometers when utilizing a common 4/3"" CCD image sensor well adapted to e.g. microscopic image dimensions. The application in microscopic imaging in the 450-900 nm spectral range is demonstrated as proof of concept, which can be adapted to massively parallel sensing in the frame of integrated sensor concepts.

We developed a novel LED projection based direct write grayscale lithography system for the generation of optical surface profiles such as micro-lenses, diffractive elements, diffusors, and micro freeforms. The image formation is realized by a LCoS micro-display which is illuminated by a 405 nm UV High Power LED. The image on the display can be demagnified from factors 5x to 100x with an exchangeable lens. By controlling exposure time and LED power, the presented technique enables a highly dynamic dosage control for the exposure of h-line sensitive photo resist. In addition, the LCoS micro-display allows for an intensity control within the micro-image which is particularly advantageous to eliminate surface profile errors from stitching and limited homogeneity from LED illumination. Together with an accurate calibration of the resist response this leads to a superior low surface error of realized profiles below 80°. Another benefit of the approach is a patterning speed up to 100 cm2/h, which allows fabricating large-scale optics and microstructures in an acceptable time. We present the setup and show examples of micro-structures to demonstrate the performance of the system, namely a refractive freeform array, where the RMS surface deviation does not exceed 0.2% of the total structure depth of 75 μm. Furthermore, we show that this exposure tool is suitable to generate diffractive optical elements as well as freeform optics and arrays with a high aspect ratio and structure depth showing a superior optical performance. Lastly we demonstrate a multi-level diffraction grating on a curved substrate.

Stochastic subwavelength structures on polymethylmetacrylate (PMMA) surfaces were produced by low-pressure argon/oxygen plasma treatment. The modified surfaces show antireflective properties exhibiting low scattering losses depending on the size and the density of the structure. It is demonstrated that the antireflection performance is a function of the mean ion energy and working pressure that are controllable by process parameters, namely plasma power and gas flow. A model is suggested that assumes a self-assembling etch mask as reason for the growth of the pins with about 70–90 nm in lateral dimension and up to 600 nm in height.

The combination of a 10.6 μm main pulse CO2 laser and a 1064 nm pre-pulse Nd:YAG laser in EUV source concepts for HVM would require collector mirrors with an integrated spectral purity filter that suppresses both laser wavelengths. This paper discusses a new approach of a dual-wavelength spectral purity filter to suppress 10.6 μm and 1064 nm IR radiation at the same time. The dual-wavelength spectral purity filter combines two binary phase gratings that are optimized for 10.6 μm and 1064 nm, respectively. The dual phase grating structure has been realized on spherical sub-aperture EUV collector mirrors having an outer diameter of 150 mm. IR suppression factors of 260 at 10.6 μm and 620 at 1064 nm have been measured on the sub-aperture EUV collector while its EUV reflectance exceeded 64 % at 13.5 nm.

In this study, a miniature artificial compound eye (15 mm in diameter) called the curved artificial compound eye (CurvACE) was endowed for the first time with hyperacuity, using similar micro-movements to those occurring in the fly's compound eye. A periodic micro-scanning movement of only a few degrees enables the vibrating compound eye to locate contrasting objects with a 40-fold greater resolution than that imposed by the interommatidial angle. In this study, we developed a new algorithm merging the output of 35 local processing units consisting of adjacent pairs of artificial ommatidia. The local measurements performed by each pair are processed in parallel with very few computational resources, which makes it possible to reach a high refresh rate of 500 Hz. An aerial robotic platform with two degrees of freedom equipped with the active CurvACE placed over naturally textured panels was able to assess its linear position accurately with respect to the environment thanks to its efficient gaze stabilization system. The algorithm was found to perform robustly at different light conditions as well as distance variations relative to the ground and featured small closed-loop positioning errors of the robot in the range of 45 mm. In addition, three tasks of interest were performed without having to change the algorithm: short-range odometry, visual stabilization, and tracking contrasting objects (hands) moving over a textured background.

Resonant grating waveguide structures are discussed as extreme narrow-band reflection filters. Their spectral response may shift due to environmental impact, e.g. from temperature, pressure or humidity, making it interesting for sensor applications. The present paper derives approximate analytical expressions for spectral rejection band shifts caused by changes in the refractive index of the waveguiding layer and compares these expressions with corresponding shifts of the reflection band of high–low multilayer stacks due to environmental changes. It is shown that a minimum shift is expected for the highest grating period that fulfils the coupling condition.

Modern applications in biomedical imaging, machine vision and security engineering require close-up optical systems with high resolution. Combined with the need for miniaturization and fast image acquisition of extended object fields, the design and fabrication of respective devices is extremely challenging. Standard commercial imaging solutions rely on bulky setups or depend on scanning techniques in order to meet the stringent requirements. Recently, our group has proposed a novel, multi-aperture approach based on parallel image transfer in order to overcome these constraints. It exploits state of the art microoptical manufacturing techniques on wafer level in order to create a compact, cost-effective system with a large field of view. However, initial prototypes have so far been subject to various limitations regarding their manufacturing, reliability and applicability. In this work, we demonstrate the optical design and fabrication of an advanced system, which overcomes these restrictions. In particular, a revised optical design facilitates a more efficient and economical fabrication process and inherently improves system reliability. An additional customized front side illumination module provides homogeneous white light illumination over the entire field of view while maintaining a high degree of compactness. Moreover, the complete imaging assembly is mounted on a positioning system. In combination with an extended working range, this allows for adjustment of the system’s focus location. The final optical design is capable of capturing an object field of 36x24 mm2 with a resolution of 150 cycles/mm. Finally, we present experimental results of the respective prototype that demonstrate its enhanced capabilities.

Micro-Optics, Brussels, BELGIUM, APR 14-16, 2014; International audience; Natural compound-eyes consist of a large number of ommatidia that are arranged on curved surfaces and thus are able to detect signals from a wide field of view. We present an integrated artificial compound-eye sensor system with enhanced field of view of 180 degrees x 60 degrees due to the introduction of curvature. The system bases on an array of adaptive logarithmic wide-dynamic-range photoreceptors for optical flow detection and compound-eye optics for increasing sensitivity and expanding the field of view. Its assembling is mainly done in planar geometry on a flexible printed circuit board. The separation into smaller ommatidia blocks by dicing enables flexibility and finally allows for mounting on curved surfaces. The signal processing electronics of the presented system is placed together with further sensors into the concavity of the photoreceptor array, and facilitates optical flow computation for navigation purposes.

Micro-optical systems, that utilize multiple channels for imaging instead of a single one, are frequently discussed for ultra-compact applications such as digital cameras. The strategy of their fabrication differs due to different concepts of image formation. Illustrated by recently implemented systems for multi-aperture imaging, typical steps of wafer-level fabrication are discussed in detail. In turn, the made progress may allow for additional degrees of freedom in optical design. Pressing ahead with very short overall lengths and multiple diaphragm array layers, results in the use of extremely thin glass substrates down to 100 microns in thickness. The desire for a wide field of view for imaging has led to chirped arrays of microlenses and diaphragms. Focusing on imaging quality, aberrations were corrected by introducing toroidal lenslets and elliptical apertures. Such lenslets had been generated by thermal reflow of lithographic patterned photoresist and subsequent molding. Where useful, the system's performance can be further increased by applying aspheric microlenses from reactive ion etching (RIE) transfer or by achromatic doublets from superimposing two moldings with different polymers. Multiple diaphragm arrays prevent channel crosstalk. But using simple metal layers may lead to multiple reflections and an increased appearance of ghost images. A way out are low reflecting black matrix polymers that can be directly patterned by lithography. But in case of environmental stability and high resolution, organic coatings should be replaced by patterned metal coatings that exhibit matched antireflective layers like the prominent black chromium. The mentioned components give an insight into the fabrication process of multi-aperture imaging systems. Finally, the competence in each step decides on the overall image quality.

International audience; CURVACE aims at designing, developing, and assessing CURVed Artificial Compound Eyes, a radically novel family of vision systems. This innovative approach will provide more efficient visual abilities for embedded applications that require motion analysis in low-power and small packages. Compared to conventional cameras, artificial compound eyes will offer a much larger field of view with negligible distortion and exceptionally high temporal resolution in smaller size and weight that will fit the requirements of a wide range of applications.

As a matter of course, cameras are integrated in the field of information and communication technology. It can be observed, that there is a trend that those cameras get smaller and at the same time cheaper. Because single aperture have a limit of miniaturization, while simultaneously keeping the same space-bandwidth-product and transmitting a wide field of view, there is a need of new ideas like the multi aperture optical systems. In the proposed camera system the image is formed with many different channels each consisting of four microlenses which are arranged one after another in different microlens arrays. A partial image which fits together with the neighbouring one is formed in every single channel, so that a real erect image is generated and a conventional image sensor can be used. The microoptical fabrication process and the assembly are well established and can be carried out on wafer-level. Laser writing is used for the fabrication of the masks. UV-lithography, a reflow process and UV-molding is needed for the fabrication of the apertures and the lenses. The developed system is very small in terms of both length and lateral dimensions and has a VGA resolution and a diagonal field of view of 65 degrees. This microoptical vision system is appropriate for being implemented in electronic devices such as webcams integrated in notebookdisplays.

The miniaturization of actuators results in two major consequences: First, the reduction in efficiency depending on the physical principle. Second, the increasing requirements in positioning accuracy during the assembly and fabrication process in combination with low cost production. Electrostatic polymeric actuators providing out-of-plane motion which can be completely fabricated in parallel fabrication steps and hence be produced on wafer level are compliant to these tolerance and cost constraints. The electrostatic actuation principle is a surface effect and therefore independent of the volume. In addition, the efficiency of electrostatic actuation increases with a decreasing gap size between the electrodes. The simple morphology of such actuators can be easily produced by UV-replication of polymeric materials. In consequence, the electrostatic actuation principle is predestined for the combination with low cost wafer level fabrication. This paper reports on the first results of successfully fabricated electrostatic actuators produced on wafer level. Instead of using a standard silicon substrate our approach is based on the lithographic structuring of the non-conducting material ORMOCER®. In comparison ORMOCER® has a significantly lower elastic modulus (about 1 GPa). Therefore, only a fraction of actuation voltage is necessary for a similar deflection. The material is structured using photolithography and the electrodes are realized with coatings of thin metal layers. Experimental results show a deflection up to 49,1 μm at 500 V for an 75 μm thick cantilever beam fixed at both ends. Good agreement between measurements and simulations is achieved, proving the applicability of the software and the assumed material parameters.

We propose a microoptical approach to ultra-compact optics for real-time vision systems that are inspired by the compound eyes of insects. The demonstrated module achieves about VGA resolution with a total track length of 1.4 mm which is about two times shorter than comparable single aperture optics. The partial images that are separately recorded in different optical channels are stitched together to form a final image of the whole field of view by means of image processing. A software correction is applied to each partial image so that the final image is made free of distortion. The microlens arrays are realized by state of the art microoptical fabrication techniques on wafer-level which are suitable for a potential application in high volume e.g. for consumer electronic products.

Although several applications of machine vision and biomedical imaging ask for the close-up imaging of extended object fields, only few, mostly bulky solutions exist. We demonstrate the optical design and realization of an ultra-compact close-up imaging system with unity magnification. It uses a multi-aperture approach in order to shorten its total track length to less than 4 mm while achieving a large field of view. The system is made of a stack of several two-dimensional arrays of refractive microlenses. The potential of this setup lies in the combination of digital imaging with microoptical fabrication techniques leading to thin optical components which can be directly attached to an image sensor. Hence, these systems fit into tight spaces and they achieve a high resolution without scanning.

The integration of camera modules in portable devices is increasing rapidly. At the same time, their size is shrinking due to the need for mobility and reduction of costs. For this purpose, an ultra-compact imaging system has been realized, which adapts the multichannel imaging principle of superposition compound eyes known from nocturnal insects. The application forms an erect image by using a pair of microlens arrays with slightly different pitches, which is also known as "Gabor superlens". The microoptical design was optimized by using numerical ray tracing methods with respect to the capabilities of state-of-the-art microoptics fabrication technology. Additional aperture/diaphragm layers and a field lens array had to be introduced in order to avoid channel cross talk. As a result, the optical performance is comparable to that of miniaturized conventional lens modules. However, the fabrication of the microoptical Gabor superlens is kept simple and scalable in terms of wafer-level technology due to the use of microlens arrays with low sag heights and small microlens diameters.

Up to now, multi channel imaging systems have been increasingly studied and approached from various directions in the academic domain due to their promising large field of view at small system thickness. However, specific drawbacks of each of the solutions prevented the diffusion into corresponding markets so far. Most severe problems are a low image resolution and a low sensitivity compared to a conventional single aperture lens besides the lack of a cost-efficient method of fabrication and assembly. We propose a microoptical approach to ultra-compact optics for real-time vision systems that are inspired by the compound eyes of insects. The demonstrated modules achieve a VGA resolution with 700x550 pixels within an optical package of 6.8mm x 5.2mm and a total track length of 1.4mm. The partial images that are separately recorded within different optical channels are stitched together to form a final image of the whole field of view by means of image processing. These software tools allow to correct the distortion of the individual partial images so that the final image is also free of distortion. The so-called electronic cluster eyes are realized by state-of-the-art microoptical fabrication techniques and offer a resolution and sensitivity potential that makes them suitable for consumer, machine vision and medical imaging applications.

A new technology based on plasma etching has been developed to produce antireflective surface structures. By choosing thin initial layers and variable plasma conditions, a broad range of nanostructures can be obtained on various polymers. A broadband antireflective effect can be achieved that is less sensitive to the incident angle of light compared to multilayer interference coatings. Thin layers of silica help in mechanical protection, especially if the structured surface is nearly enclosed by the protection layer. In addition, surfaces that show both antireflective properties and an antifogging effect have been prepared. Combinations of SiO2 and fluorine-containing layers were found to be useful in obtaining super-hydrophobic behavior. This advanced plasma etching is not limited to a special plasma source and the suitability of different plasma sources is discussed.

Resonant grating waveguide structures may find application as narrowband reflection filters. We present a theoretical approach for calculating the thermal shift in such devices. The results are compared to thermal shifts in classical multilayer stacks.

Subwavelength structures of sufficient height are capable to reduce the Fresnel reflection of surfaces. A new technique is presented to produce stochastic structures on polymer surfaces by low-pressure plasma-ion treatment, showing excellent broadband antireflective properties.

Gradient index coatings and optical filters are a challenge for fabrication. In a round-robin experiment, basically the same hybrid antireflection coating for the visible spectral region, combining homogeneous refractive index layers of pure materials and linear gradient refractive index layers of material mixtures, has been deposited. The experiment involved three different deposition techniques: electron-beam evaporation, ion-beam sputtering, and radio frequency magnetron sputtering. The material combinations used by these techniques were Nb(2)O(5)/SiO(2), TiO(2)/SiO(2), and Ta(2)O(5)/SiO(2), respectively. The spectral performances of samples coated on one side and on both sides have been compared to the corresponding theoretical spectra of the designed profile. Also, the reproducibility of results for each process is verified. Finally, it is shown that ion-beam sputtering gave the best results in terms of deviation from the theoretical performance and reproducibility.

The deposition of graded-index layers and rugate structures was performed by coevaporation of silicon dioxide as the low index material and niobium pentoxide as the high index material. To obtain information about the composition depth profile of the films, we used cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy to supplement deposition rate data recorded by two indipendent crystal quartz monitors during film preparation. The concentration depth profile was transformed to a refractive index profile using the effective medium approximation. The thus obtained refractive index profiles turned out to represent efficient initial approximations for re-engineering purposes.

High transparent thermoplastics have the capability to put glass out of business, especially in everyday life's optics. Their diverse nature gives rise to different antireflection principles. The reduction of surface reflection losses in polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is demonstrated by means of argon/oxygen plasma treatment. Since the presented reduction of reflection occurs in a wide spectral range, the technique may be applied for omnidirectional devices or curved substrates. The etching process creates a self-organized stochastic subwavelength structure at the substrate itself. The decrease in reflection is described by effective medium theory (EMT), converting the surface topology into a depth-dependent filling factor profile. In a second step this nano-scaled structure is used as the initial point for a broadband absorber by coating it with a nontransparent metal layer. A high-efficient absorber can be obtained, if the metal acts as backside coating of the double-sided plasma-treated substrate and steady-going transitions between the materials eliminating the Fresnel reflections. In practice, the magnitude of absorption depends on depth of structure as well as on the complex refractive index of the metal.

Inhomogeneous coatings are promising for superior optical properties, e.g. broadband antireflection, in comparison to conventional HL-stack designs. Although a lot of excellent theoretical work on optical behaviour of rugates and gradient index films has been done during the last decades, there is no real breakthrough in industrial fabrication. The realization of such coatings leads to an extensive and time-consuming computer-aided control, because of complicated layer designs with continuously changing refractive index gradients. We describe the design and optical performance of an omnidirectional antireflection coating that essentially represents a hybrid coating composed from homogeneous layers and linear refractive index gradient layers.

Gradient index films and rugate filters built of niobium pentoxide and silicon dioxide have been produced by IAD. The coatings have been characterized by cross-sectional electron microscopy and EELS, as well as optical spectroscopy.

An in-situ broadband monitoring system to measure reflectance or transmittance of optical coatings deposited with IAD was developed. First results on the deposition of metal island layers and gradient refractive index layers are presented.

Wafer-level optics is considered as a cost-effective approach to miniaturized cameras, because fabrication and assembly are carried out for thousands of lenses in parallel. However, in most cases the micro-optical fabrication process is not mature enough to reach the required accuracy of the optical elements, which may have complex profiles and sags in the mm-scale. Contrary, the creation of microlens arrays is well controllable so that we propose a multi aperture system called "Optical Cluster Eye" which is based on conventional micro-optical fabrication techniques. The proposed multi aperture camera consists of many optical channels each transmitting a segment of the whole field of view. The design of the system provides the stitching of the partial images, so that a seamless image is formed and a commercially available image sensor can be used. The system can be fabricated on wafer-level with high yield due to small aperture diameters and low sags. The realized optics has a lateral size of 2.2 × 2.9 mm2, a total track length of 1.86 mm, and captures images at VGA video resolution.

We propose a microoptical approach to ultra-compact optics for real-time vision systems that are inspired by the compound eyes of insects. The demonstrated module achieves approx. VGA resolution with a total track length of 1.4 mm which is about two times shorter than comparable single-aperture optics on images sensors of the same pixel pitch. The partial images that are separately recorded in different optical channels are stitched together to form a final image of the whole field of view by means of image processing. A software correction is applied to each partial image so that the final image is made free of distortion. The microlens arrays are realized by state of the art microoptical fabrication techniques on wafer-level which are suitable for a potential application in high volume e.g. for consumer electronic products.

Subwavelength structures of sufficient height-to-width aspect ratio are adequate for reduction of the Fresnel reflection of surfaces. In the case of low-pressure plasma-treated polymers, the self-organized features are stochastically distributed on the surface area with unequal shapes. Common descriptions use effective medium theory along with a continuously altering volume filling factor that together lead to a lateral homogeneous layer with a depth-dependent refractive index. We use a fixed gradient function for the refractive index for reverse engineering of in situ measured broadband optical data, and we compare the results with nonoptic methods.

Self-organized nanostructures that provide antireflection properties grow on PMMA caused by plasma ion etching. A new procedure uses a thin initial layer prior to the etching step. Different types of antireflective structures can now be produced in a shorter time and with fewer limitations on the type of polymer that can be used. The durability of the structured surfaces can be improved by the deposition of additional thin films.

In most animal species, vision is mediated by compound eyes, which offer lower resolution than vertebrate single-lens eyes, but significantly larger fields of view with negligible distortion and spherical aberration, as well as high temporal resolution in a tiny package. Compound eyes are ideally suited for fast panoramic motion perception. Engineering a miniature artificial compound eye is challenging because it requires accurate alignment of photoreceptive and optical components on a curved surface. Here, we describe a unique design method for biomimetic compound eyes featuring a panoramic, undistorted field of view in a very thin package. The design consists of three planar layers of separately produced arrays, namely, a microlens array, a neuromorphic photodetector array, and a flexible printed circuit board that are stacked, cut, and curved to produce a mechanically flexible imager. Following this method, we have prototyped and characterized an artificial compound eye bearing a hemispherical field of view with embedded and programmable low-power signal processing, high temporal resolution, and local adaptation to illumination. The prototyped artificial compound eye possesses several characteristics similar to the eye of the fruit fly Drosophila and other arthropod species. This design method opens up additional vistas for a broad range of applications in which wide field motion detection is at a premium, such as collision-free navigation of terrestrial and aerospace vehicles, and for the experimental testing of insect vision theories.