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When outfitted as a habitat, the SLS Core Stage Liquid Oxygen Tank is a pressure vessel that can be used to support human exploration in deep space. An exploration spacecraft can be constructed with this habitat, known as the Common Habitat, as its central element. More than just a transit vehicle, this spacecraft is a Deep Space Exploration Vehicle – a microgravity science laboratory capable of conducting research with onboard human crews throughout the inner solar system. Supplied with propellant by LEO depots, preliminary trajectory and v estimates indicate that the spacecraft can perform fly-by or orbital missions with trajectories close enough to the sun to intersect the orbit of Mercury or far enough away to fly by the main belt asteroid Vesta. Its primary mission, however, is to support human expeditions to Mars. Many, though not all, of the pressurized and unpressurized elements that compose the Deep Space Exploration Vehicle can also be used in surface base camps on the Moon and Mars. In additional to traditional space science disciplines, the spacecraft offers unique potential for small asteroid retrieval and for artificial gravity research. Three launches are used to deploy the spacecraft, but thirty-nine launches are used to deliver propellant to orbit to fully fuel the spacecraft for deep space missions. Key operations in a Mars crewed mission are described to illustrate how the vehicle is used and forward work is listed to mature the spacecraft concept.

The Common Habitat uses the SLS Core Stage Liquid Oxygen tank as the primary structure (similar to Skylab) and has an internal architecture compatible with microgravity, lunar gravity, and Mars gravity, such that identical versions of the same design can be used in all three environments. Applying the large dimensions and eight-person crew size of the Common Habitat to a surface architecture leads to a unique base camp configuration. A notional such base camp is described in this analysis. The base camp includes four distributed zones – habitation, landing, power, and resource production. The base camp is deployed and assembled in three phases: site preparation, element staging, and habitat delivery, each of which are briefly discussed. Crew arrival and departure is discussed, including variations caused by orbital mechanics-induced differences between the Moon and Mars base camps. Trash and logistics operations are described. Finally, crew operations within the base camp are described.

Science outfitting is often given insufficient treatment in the development of early conceptual studies for lunar surface habitats. In some cases, only control masses and volumes are used as placeholders. In others, one science discipline may be given detailed treatment while others are largely ignored. It is not unheard of for science outfitting to be entirely forgotten in initial concept layouts. This is exacerbated by the reality that spacecraft design studies are often initiated long before science objectives have been established for any given human spaceflight destination. When those objectives later emerge, they can be difficult to accommodate if sizing studies did not allocate sufficient resources for them. A notional science outfitting can be created for virtually any human exploration habitat, however, utilizing data created by the International Space Station and Constellation programs. Biology, human research, physics, and geology science laboratories and a general-purpose work area for a lunar surface habitat will be derived using equipment identified by the Constellation-era Optimizing Science and Exploration Working Group (OSEWG) or flown on the International Space Station. Early science outfitting definition and inclusion in surface habitat sizing is critical for developing an exploration architecture that meets science needs. The mass, volume, power, and use cases associated with these notional laboratories impacts all of the habitat subsystems, habitat dimensions, hatch dimensions, logistics operations, launch vehicles and landers.

The Common Habitat is a long-duration habitat concept based on the Skylab II architecture that leverages a single, multi-destination design applicable to microgravity Mars transit, 1/6 g lunar surface, 3/8 g Mars surface, and 1 g Earth. A trade study for the Common Habitat will address vertical versus horizontal internal orientation and a crew size of four or eight crew. This has resulted in the creation of four variants of the Common Habitat: Four Crew Horizontal Configuration, Four Crew Vertical Configuration, Eight Crew Horizontal Configuration, and Eight Crew Vertical Configuration. Design guidelines that shaped the four configurations are discussed, including: mission duration, destinations/missions, pressure vessel, hatches and docking, subsystems and utilities, lander integration and offloading, and eight-crew extensibility. Functional capabilities for crew-related systems are also discussed, including: private habitation, meal preparation, meal consumption, medical operations, exercise, group socialization and recreation, human waste collection, hygiene, logistics, spacecraft monitoring and commanding, mission planning, robotics and teleoperation, scientific research, maintenance and fabrication, and EVA. Each of the four Common Habitat designs will be presented, with a deck-by-deck description of each workstation, crew station, or subsystem along with an assessment of its degree of compliance with the guidelines and functional capabilities. Finally, forward work will be identified that will down-select a single Common Habitat. This includes multiple analyses that will be performed on the four variants, a down-selection process, and design refinement goals for the selected variant.

From 2008 to 2010, the NASA Small Pressurized Rover was tested in the Arizona desert in anticipation of human lunar surface missions. These tests were multi-day mission simulations with crew living in and conducting simulated lunar surface EVAs from the rover prototypes for 3, 7, or 14 days. This two-person surface spacecraft represents a departure from most previous lunar architectures, which either featured Apollo-class unpressurized rovers or large pressurized rovers – in some cases up to the scale of being considered mobile outposts. This paper will discuss the history of the Small Pressurized Rover, some of the values of field testing, the rover’s design evolution including the two prototypes tested in the field, key features and advantages of the SPR, the field test site location, the 2008, 2009, and 2010 field tests, habitability lessons learned from the testing, comparisons with follow-on laboratory/high bay testing, and recommendations for third generation rover design and flight vehicle development.

The Artemis program is committed to landing humans on the Moon in the 2020s leading to a sustainable lunar presence by the end of the decade. It is challenging to deliver heavy payloads to the lunar surface in support of these goals given currently available Earth launch systems. The payload capacity of the launch systems limits the size of the lunar landers, thereby limiting their cargo capacity. Fortunately, lander cargo capacity can be significantly increased if multiple landers are joined together in space. This concept has been previously introduced as the Joinable Undercarriage to Maximize Payload (JUMP) Lander. Utilizing a JUMP Lander system will increase options and make it easier to comply with directives issued by senior White House leadership to initiate long duration human activity on the Moon. Such activity, by definition, implies extensive habitation, mobility, research, and resource development capability that in turn calls for significant mass delivery to the lunar surface. This paper develops three concept illustration variants of the JUMP Lander. These concepts explore hypergolic, hydrogen, and methane propellant options, as well as the power and thermal rejection systems necessary to enable such lander concepts. The paper also estimates masses for the necessary avionics, structures, and mechanical subsystems. The paper documents the resulting configurations and recommends a JUMP Lander to carry forward in further development.

Currently, NASA has engaged industry to develop a series of small to medium capacity landers with payload capacities of up to 5-9 tons by the mid to late 2020s. This contrasts with the former Constellation program, where the Altair lunar lander was targeting a payload capability of roughly 14-20 tons. Investment in smaller landers may present future challenges in delivering habitat modules larger than lunar lander cabins or small logistics modules to the lunar surface. Additionally, given a projected SLS flight rate of 1-2 launches per year, a lunar surface buildup from small elements seems problematic at best. While commercial launchers provide a supplement to SLS, many of the current and projected launch vehicles deliver less than 20 tons to a Trans-Lunar Injection – even fewer to the lunar surface. However, a possible solution could emerge if the lander itself could be launched in pieces with a buildup in Cislunar space. Thus, launchers with these capacities could contribute to a lunar lander capable of delivering 30 tons or more to the lunar surface. This paper introduces the notional concept of a Joinable Undercarriage to Maximized Payload (JUMP) lander. Key elements of a proposed JUMP lander concept will be discussed, followed by recommendations and forward work.

There are compelling advantages of a human presence on the surface of the Moon, as evidenced partly by the preponderance of lunar surface architectures that have existed throughout NASA, industry, and academia since the Apollo program. This paper specifically advocates and illustrates an example of a permanent human lunar surface presence enabled by a commercial launch vehicle (CLV) class Joinable Undercarriage to Maximize Payload (JUMP) lunar lander. The paper will discuss purposes for such a surface presence, including SPD-1 fulfillment, global collaboration, US industry advancement, US government leadership in spaceflight, a Mars dress rehearsal, Mars collaborative exploration, and lunar village development. An architectural description will be presented, including site selection, primary elements, and surface configuration. Element and lander allocation to CLV and Space Launch System (SLS) rockets will be discussed in terms of launch vehicle selection philosophy and allocation to specific launch manifests. This will enable a presentation of a lunar campaign spanning the period from 2026 to 2056. In conclusion, various aspects of the architecture will be suggested for further study.

The risk that benzene and toluene from spills of gasoline will impact drinking water wells is largely controlled by the natural anaerobic biodegradation of benzene and toluene. Benzene and toluene, as well as ethanol and other biofuels, are degraded under anaerobic conditions to the same pool of degradation products. Biodegradation of biofuels may produce concentrations of degradation products that make the thermodynamics for degradation of benzene and toluene infeasible under methanogenic conditions and produce larger plumes of benzene and toluene. This study evaluated the concentrations of fuel alcohols that are necessary to inhibit the anaerobic degradation of benzene and toluene under methanogenic conditions. At two ethanol spill sites, concentrations of ethanol greater ≥42 mg/L inhibited the anaerobic degradation of toluene. The pH and concentrations of acetate, dissolved inorganic carbon, and molecular hydrogen were used to calculate the Gibbs free energy for the biodegradation of toluene. In general, the anaerobic biodegradation of toluene was not thermodynamically feasible in water with ≥42 mg/L ethanol. In a microcosm study, when the concentrations of ethanol were ≥14 mg/L or the concentrations of n-butanol were ≥16 mg/L, the biodegradation of the alcohols consistently produced concentrations of hydrogen, dissolved inorganic carbon, and acetate that would preclude natural anaerobic biodegradation of benzene and toluene by syntrophic organisms. In contrast, iso-butanol and n-propanol only occasionally produced conditions that would preclude the biodegradation of benzene and toluene.

There are currently no established standards or guidelines that define the functions to be present in habitats for use beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO), or for the capabilities of those functions. There is limited human experience with long duration space habitation, none of which is beyond LEO. There is significantly less experience with even short duration human habitation beyond LEO. Studies since the Apollo program that have proposed long duration habitats have applied inconsistent functionality, yet these functions have substantial implications for spacecraft mass and volume. There are also numerous aspects of human space flight beyond LEO that have implications for these functions. This paper develops a method for design teams to identify and justify the functions and capabilities to include in long duration habitats intended for use beyond LEO. Finally, human-in-the-loop testing methods are recommended for use in the early spacecraft design stages to ensure that the habitat will successfully provide the intended functions and capabilities.

Landing and supporting a permanent outpost on a planetary surface represents humankind's capability to expand its own horizons and challenge current technology. With this in mind, habitability of these structures becomes more essential given the longer durations of the missions. The purpose of this evaluation was to obtain preliminary human-in-the-loop performance data on the Habitat Demonstration Unit (HDU) in a Pressurized Excursion Module (PEM) configuration during a 14-day simulated lunar exploration field trial and to apply this knowledge to further enhance the habitat's capabilities for forward designs. Human factors engineers at the NASA/Johnson Space Center's Habitability and Human Factors Branch recorded approximately 96 h of crew task performance with four work stations. Human factors measures used during this study included the NASA Task Load Index (TLX) and customized post questionnaires. Overall the volume for the PEM was considered acceptable by the crew; however; the habitat's individual work station volume was constrained when setting up the vehicle for operation, medical operations, and suit maintenance while general maintenance, logistical resupply, and geo science was considered acceptable. Crew workload for each station indicated resupply as being the lowest rated, with medical operations, general maintenance, and geo science tasks as being light, while suit maintenance was considered moderate and general vehicle setup being rated the highest. Stowage was an issue around the habitat with the Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV) resupply stowage located in the center of the habitat as interfering with some work station volumes and activities. Ergonomics of the geo science station was considered a major issue, especially with the overhead touch screens.

Social network analysis (SNA) refers to the collection of techniques, tools, and methods used in sociometry aiming at the analysis of social networks to investigate decision making, group communication, and the distribution of information. Human factors engineers at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducted a social network analysis on communication data collected during a 14-day field study operating a dual rover exploration mission to better understand the relationships between certain network groups such as ground control, flight teams, and planetary science. The analysis identified two communication network structures for the continuous communication and Twice-a-Day Communication scenarios as a split network and negotiated network respectfully. The major nodes or groups for the networks' architecture, transmittal status, and information were identified using graphical network mapping, quantitative analysis of subjective impressions, and quantified statistical analysis using Sociometric Statue and Centrality. Post-questionnaire analysis along with interviews revealed advantages and disadvantages of each network structure with team members identifying the need for a more stable continuous communication network, improved robustness of voice loops, and better systems training/capabilities for scientific imagery data and operational data during Twice-a-Day Communications.

For the last 3 years, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has been testing a pressurized rover prototype in the deserts of Arizona to obtain human-in-the-loop performance data. This year's field trial consisted of operating two rovers simultaneously while embarking on two 7-day flight-like exploration missions. During the 2010 Desert Research and Technology Studies (DRATS) at Black Point Lava Flow and SP Mountain in Arizona, NASA human factors investigators, in cooperation with other engineers and scientists, collected data on both the daily living and working within and around the Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV). Both objective and subjective data were collected using standard human factors metrics. Over 305 h of crew habitability data were recorded during the field trial with 65 elements of habitation examined. Acceptability of the vehicles over the course of the missions was considered satisfactory by the majority of the crews. As with previous testing, habitation was considered acceptable by the crews, but some issues concerning stowage, Waste Containment System (WCS) volume, and sleep curtains need to be considered for redesign for the next generation vehicle.

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a cold treatment and a dynamic warm-up on lower body power in the form of a countermovement vertical jump (CMVJ). Nine physically active men, who were either current or ex-National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 athletes, consented to participate in the study. Using a balanced, randomized presentation and a within-subject design, each subject performed 4 environmental and warm-up protocols (i.e., ambient temperature without warm-up, ambient temperature with warm-up, cold without warm-up, or cold with warm-up). Two sets of 3 maximal effort CMVJs were performed on a force plate at each testing time point. For each protocol, the subjects completed a pretest set of CMVJ (pretreatment [PRE]), were then exposed to 1 of the 2 temperature treatments, completed another set of CMVJ (initial [IT]), then either went through a 15-minute warm-up, or were asked to sit in place. Then a final set of CMVJs was completed (posttreatment [PT]). The primary finding in this study was that warm-up was effective in offsetting the negative effects of cold exposure on CMVJ power. There was a significant main effect for Time (PRE > PT > IT), and there was a significant (p ≤ 0.05) main effect for Trial (AMB = AMBWU > COLDWU > COLD). Because athletic competitions happen in various colder climates, it is important to make sure that a proper warm-up be completed to maximize the athlete's power output. The results of this study demonstrate that when athletes are exposed to cold conditions, it is recommended that before practice or play, a dynamic warm-up be employed to optimize performance.

Coding, coverage, and reimbursement are vital to the clinical segment of our profession. The objective of this study was to assess understanding and use of the medical nutrition therapy (MNT) procedure codes. Its design was a targeted, cross-sectional, Internet survey. Participants were registered dietitians (RDs) preselected based on Medicare Part B provider status, randomly selected RDs from the American Dietetic Association database based on clinical practice designation, and self-selected RDs. Parameters assessed were knowledge and use of existing MNT and/or alternative procedure codes, barriers to code use/compensation, need for additional codes for existing/emerging services, and practice demographics. Results suggest that MNT is being reimbursed for a variety of diseases and conditions. Many RDs working in clinic settings are undereducated about code use of any kind, reporting that code selection frequently is determined not by the RD providing the service, but by "someone else." Self-employed RDs are less likely to rely on others to administrate paperwork required for reimbursement, including selection of procedure codes for billable nutrition services. Self-employed RDs are more likely to be reimbursed by private or commercial payers and RDs working in clinic settings are more likely to be reimbursed by Medicare; however, the proportion of Medicare providers in both groups is high. RDs must be knowledgeable and accountable for both the business and clinical side of their nutrition practices; using correct codes and following payers' claims processing policies and procedures. This survey and analysis is a first step in understanding the complex web of relationships between clinical practice, MNT code use, and reimbursement.

The purpose of this study was to track creatine kinase (CK) and serum cortisol over an American college football season starting with the preseason practice. A secondary purpose was to observe changes in basic clinical chemistries. Twenty-two National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players (age: 20.4 ± 1.1 years, height: 188.27 ± 8.3 cm, weight: 115.8 ± 29.7 kg) volunteered to participate in this study. Each of the players had participated in the summer strength and conditioning supervised program. Resting blood samples were obtained just before the start of preseason practice (T-1), 2 weeks later (T-2), and the day after game 2 (T-3), game 4 (T-4), game 6 (T-5), and game 9 (T-6) of a 12-game season. Creatine kinase, a panel of clinical chemistries, cortisol, and testosterone were assayed at each time point. No significant changes in CK concentrations were observed over the season with peak values of each range ≤1,070.0 IU·L(-1), but the largest range was observed at T-6 after game 9 (119-2,834 IU·L(-1). The analysis of covariance analysis demonstrated that the number of plays in the ninth game (T-6) explained the magnitude of the changes in CK. No changes in serum cortisol concentrations were observed yet, again large variations existed with peak values of each range ≤465.0 nmol·L(-1). Clinical chemistries showed various significant changes from T-1, but none were considered clinically relevant changes for any player over the time course of the study. In conclusion, the strength and conditioning program before preseason camp or the structure of summer camp practices and the in-season strength and conditioning appeared to mute muscle damage and the stress response of cortisol. Such data demonstrate that changes in muscle damage and adrenal cortical stress over the season are minimal, yet large individual variations can be observed. Management of these variables appears to be related to optimal strength and conditioning and sports medicine programs. Thus, the greater concerns for student-athlete safety in the sport of American football are related to preventing sudden death, traumatic injury, and managing concussion syndromes.

This study examined the effects of cold water immersion on isokinetic and isometric strength on 10 physically active male college students. Isokinetic knee extension strength (30,180,300, and 400 · sec−1) and isometric strength were assessed. Isometric testing consisted of 5-see isometric knee extension muscle actions at a 45° angle. Subjects randomly performed all three treatment conditions: a cold treatment (12°C), thermal neutral treatment (35.5°C), or nonimmersion room temperature treatment (22–23°C). For the cold and thermal neutral treatments both thighs were immersed in a whirlpool tank with moving water leveled to each subject's gluteal fold. Treatments lasted 45 min. Higher isokinetic velocities demonstrated a significant decrease in average peak torque, average power, and total work. No significant changes were observed for isometric force or low velocity movements. No significant decreases were observed for the angle of peak torque or for time to peak torque. This study demonstrated that if the thighs are immersed in cold water, functional strength performance at higher movement velocities will be impaired.

The purpose of this study was to examine markers of skeletal muscle tissue damage and circulating anabolic and catabolic hormones to gain insight into the recovery process from Friday until Monday, when a new practice week begins. Twenty-eight National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players gave consent to participate in the investigation in the ninth game of the season. Sixteen players started the game and played the entire game (PL), and 12 others did not play and were on the bench during the game (DNP). Each player had fasted blood samples obtained at the same time of day between 1000 and 1200 hours the day before the game (Friday; T1), 18-20 hours after the game (Sunday; T2), and then 42-44 hours after the game (Monday; T3). Blood samples were analyzed for concentrations of creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), myoglobin, testosterone, and cortisol. The PL players showed significantly (por= 0.05) increased concentrations of CK (T2T1 and T3), myoglobin (T2T1 and T3), and LDH (T2T1). In contrast, DNP players showed significant differences in cortisol (T3T1 and T2) and testosterone:cortisol (T3T1). Few changes were observed in testosterone and cortisol changes, indicating stability of the anabolic/catabolic hormones. In conclusion, these data indicate that participation in a college football game late in the season results in some degree of tissue damage but with minimal hormonal responses, which seem to have stabilized at resting concentrations without predominance of cortisol's catabolic presence. As previously noted in the literature, some type of "contact adaptation" to the season may have occurred with regard to tissue damage responses. However, by the ninth game of a season, players do carry soft tissue damage levels above resting ranges into subsequent games, indicating that recovery should be monitored, with coaches being careful with scheduling scrimmage and full-contact drills. How such data implicate overuse injuries remains unclear, considering that hormonal status in this study was highly stable, with catabolic influences minimized by the high level of athlete conditioning. These data again support that high-level conditioning can stabilize anabolic and catabolic hormonal signals and limit acute soft tissue injury, making cerebral concussion (acute and chronic) and traumatic injury the biggest threats to a student-athlete's health and well-being during an American football game.

The focus of this paper is a preliminary study intended as the first phase in the development of a pressurized rover conceptual design. NSBE Space has concluded that pressurized rovers will be necessary for any large scale lunar presence. Rover missions include both local transportation between the lunar base and lunar landers as well as surface expeditions away from the base focused around scientific research or commercial industry activities. The paper provides a brief assessment of design concepts for rover vehicle systems. This rover is a traditional configuration of a pressure vessel mounted above a drive mechanism (Eckart, 1999), but is larger than many of the traditional concepts based on the MOSAP configuration, such as LUNOX (Joosten, 1994). Introduction Project Arusha is a research initiative of the Space Special Interest Group of the National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE Space). Its centerpiece is Moonbase Arusha, a conceptual design for a 48-person lunar facility, intended as an international government/commercial venture to be deployed in the timeframe after the NASA Exploration initiatives. Arusha is Kiswahili for “He makes fly (into the skies)”. Its purpose is to accelerate the commercial use of the Moon, in line with the provisions of the National Aeronautics and Space Act. This paper assumes a Moonbase Arusha configuration including six pressurized rovers, with rotating maintenance down periods, such that four rovers are available at any given time. A pressurized garage facility is assumed, allowing for major servicing of one rover and minor servicing for a second rover at any given time. The paper further assumes a satellite constellation providing constant line of sight communications throughout the maximum possible rover traverse ranges. Finally, the paper assumes that the lunar base includes docking ports where the pressurized rovers can dock with base elements, allowing pressurized transfer between the rover and the base. Launch Vehicle, Transfer Vehicle, and Lander With a mass of approximately 20,000 kg, the Arusha rovers will require a cargo lander with a payload capacity roughly on the upper end of viable LSAM variants. In particular, the LSAM concept proposed by Saucillo not only possesses the necessary payload capacity (24.5 tons), but also provides for efficient unloading due to its configuration, mounting the payload below the propellant tanks (Saucillo, 2005). Mission Operations The Mission Operations portion of the Arusha project will consist of three control centers: Dunia (Kiswahili for Earth), Mwezi (Kiswahili for Moon), and Jahazi (Kiswahili for Ship). Dunia, the Earth control center, will act as a back up to all operations. Mwezi, the Moonbase control center, will be the main center of all operations, and will receive Jahazi and Dunia data. Mwezi will handle data communications between Arusha and Earth (or other vehicles or bases). Jahazi, the rover control center, will be an internal system to each rover. This control center will not be as complex as the other two, but will communicate with Mwezi for high level command and control and perform some self-diagnostics and troubleshooting of the rover should the need arise. Dunia, Earth Mission Control Dunia will be equipped with workstations and communications infrastructure configured to receive data from Mwezi and send commands through Mwezi to Jahazi, if required. This will be the lead center of all operations, but Mwezi is the preferred control center for every day operations. The control center will house multiple workstations, each assigned to a particular system/function of the Mwezi center. Each workstation has the ability to command the systems that they monitor. Mwezi, Moon Mission Control Mwezi is the preferred control center of Moonbase Arusha. Dunia will be the backup to this control center should problems occur. All subsystems can be commanded/controlled from this location, including the rovers. Mwezi will be the ‘everyday’ center, responsible for executing missions, following flight schedules, and maintaining the rovers and facility. Though this is the preferred center of activity, Mwezi will be in nearly constant communication with Dunia. Subsystems on Mwezi will be mirrored on Dunia, thus the positions in Dunia will have Mwezi counterparts. Jahazi, Rover Onboard Mission Control Jahazi will be more of a micro-center located within each rover and is primarily autonomous with reconfigurable levels of crew oversight. The rover will be equipped with a high level form of artificial intelligence that will perform self-diagnostic and troubleshooting functions as well as send and receive information to and from Mwezi and other control centers. The crew will interface with Jahazi via the work stations in the forward section (described later). Jahazi operates on the network associated with the pressurized rover computer architecture discussed in the Computer Architecture section of this paper. Communications Currently, NASA is developing an integrated communication system for exploration incentives (Spearing, 2005). The system will extend from the near-Earth orbit to lunar orbit and beyond. The architecture includes low-rate/high-rate data and user links, relay links, and proximity links. It will provide continuous communication between the Earth and the Moon. To help facilitate this communications need, a new technology called software defined radio (SDR) is under consideration for implementation (Schier, 2005). SDRs are capable of meeting the changing requirements and specifications for various communication standards without changing the radio hardware. SDR technology will provide Arusha increased flexibility within the communication system without utilizing different radio hardware, which is a costeffective approach for meeting future requirements. Power, Drivetrain, & Mechanisms Power System The power needs for the pressurized rover will be handled by a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell power system. The electrical energy produced by the fuel cell stack(s) can be fed to the motor inverter directly. In some cases, it may be attractive to use a buffer system, such as a battery, super capacitor or fly wheel. The buffer will supply peak power. This may be needed during start-up, or during acceleration. The buffer can also be used to absorb energy during regenerative braking.

One could argue that NASA has never developed a true habitat for a planetary surface, with only the Lunar Module from the 1960's-era Apollo Program providing for a sparse 2 person, 3 day capability. An integral part of NASA's current National Vision for Space Exploration is missions back to the moon and eventually to Mars. One of the largest leaps i11 lunar surface exploration beyond the Apollo lunar missions will be the conduct of these extended duration human missions. These missions could range from 30 to 90 days in length initially and may eventually range up to 500 days in length. To enable these extended duration human missions, probably the single-most important lunar surface element is the Surface Habitat. The requirements that must be met by the Surface Habitat will go far beyond the safety, performance and operational requirements of the Lunar Module, and NASA needs to develop a basis for making intelligent, technically correct habitat design decisions. This paper will discuss the possibilities of the definition and development of a Habitation Readiness Level (HRL) scale that might be mapped to current Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) for technology development. HRLs could help measure how well a particular technology thrust is advanced by a proposed planetary habitat concept. The readiness level would have to be measured differently than TRLs, and may include such milestones as habitat design performance under simulated mission operations and constraints (including relevant field testing), functional allocation demonstrations, crew interface evaluation and post-occupancy evaluation. With many concepts for planetary habitats proposed over the past 20 years, there are many strategic technical challenges facing designers of planetary habitats that will support NASA's exploration of the moon and Mars. The systematic assessment of a variety of planetary habitat options will be an important approach and will influence the associated requirements for human design, volumetrics, functionality, systems hardware and operations.

The effects of wideband linear frequency modulated (LFM) signal processing in phased-array radars are discussed for a phased-array antenna with subarrays. In addition to the performance issues of dispersion loss and compressed pulse widths associated with wideband phased arrays, subarrayed architectures add the problem of wideband sidelobes, or subarray grating lobes. The authors address the relationships between these three performance parameters and the effect that three different spectral filtering techniques have on them. Three filtering scenes are studied: a matching filter, a matching filter following by a weighting filter in combination, and a weighting filter with Taylor distributed weights. >