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This article proposes a new social welfare measure based on Aristotle’s theory of reciprocity. Unlike existing metrics of social welfare, the proposed Aristotelian social welfare function measures reciprocity in a society, that is, the degree to which members of a society cooperate to benefit each other. We provide numerical estimates of the welfare function using data from income distribution quintiles in the recent past for the U. S., Germany, Russia, Ukraine, and Iran. The numerical results show that, starting from different initial values, the U. S. and Germany have experienced declining social welfare, while Iran and Ukraine have experienced increasing social welfare. GDP per capita appears to be inversely correlated with social welfare in the U. S. and Germany. Europeans seem to enjoy higher social welfare than Americans. The article introduces its topic by advancing criticism that contemporary approaches to social welfare, such as the capabilities approaches, estimate a presumed welfare of individuals , rather than social welfare.

Antiphasis is a case of core-dependent homonymy, and has three significations in Aristotle's philosophy: (1) antiphasis as an opposition between propositions (a propositional signification); (2) antiphasis as the opposition between ‘subject’ and ‘not a subject’ in coming-to-be and perishing (an ontological signification); and (3) antiphasis as the opposition between possession and privation (an ontological signification). Argument based on the fifth type of priority described in Cat. 12 shows that, for Aristotle, the ontological significations are prior to the propositional.

Aristotle's unusual view that charis should play a role in exchange is defended from the criticisms of Meikle and others. Aristotle proposes to amend the conventional Athenian status transaction so that it benefits the weaker party. The stronger is rewarded with honour and increased social influence, which could protect him/her from punitive taxation or court judgments. The relations between Aristotle's views and those of Polanyi are indicated.

In just proportional exchange, under Aristotle's theory of reciprocal justice, superior sharers in a community materially assist the weaker, and receive honour as a reward. Aristotle's economic thought is represented with a system of 18 formulae. Explained are: (1) What Aristotle means when he says that it is impossible for two sharers or their erga to be commensurable; (2) The extent to which the variables in Aristotle's proportions can be quantified. (3) What diagonal pairing ( κατ διμϵτρoν σζϵυξις) is; (4) How need makes sharers and their erga ‘sufficiently' commensurable; and (5) Aristotle's theory of what is just in exchange.

Contemporary mission is still struggling with how to connect the contemplative inward journey of the spiritual practices, the outward actions of social justice, and the proclamation of the good news in the ongoing activities of the church today and specifically in its missional task. While the Protestant church is divided over the issue, this paper proposes that there is a possibility of significant convergence of the inner and outer lives of the church, which results in an inner spiritual liberation of mission. This article examines the correlation of spirituality and mission from the “writings ’’ of selected Protestant Latin American scholar-practitioners focusing on the relationship between the inner and outer dimensions of Christian mission, wholeness and integrity of mission, spiritual practices and mission, and worship and mission. In their integration, these emphases provide insights that answer the ecclesiastical question that exists in mission today and provides renovated foundations for the continuing development of the global missional force. n an article entitled, “Evangelization from the Inside: Reflections from a Prison Cell,” Mortimer Arias, first bishop of the Methodist Church in Bolivia, gave a I personal example of a Bible study in prison that resulted in Christian witness. During the Luis Garcia Meza military coup in Bolivia (1980), Arias was jailed, and leading his fellow prisoners in singing hymns, praying, and reading the Bible he found himself in mission. He declared of this time, “It is amazing how God can speak to and through people who are not conditioned by theological jargon or dogmatic hang-ups. It is here where the evangelizer is evangelized in the process of evangelizing” (Arias

Aristotle holds that there must be multiple forms of human being and those forms constitute a genos, this paper argues. Aristotle advances his claim by arguing that the strength of a polis rests on the existence of a spectrum of useful essential differences among its citizens. The paper rejects the notion that eidos is a homonym, and argues that it signifies `form,' not `species.' Its theses are based on analysis of passages in the Ethics, Metaphysics, Politics and other works. The argument of the paper is compatible with `individual' or `particular' forms. The paper also proposes a solution to the issue of `natural slavery.'

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Beginning with the Herrnhut community in 1722, Nicholaus von Zinzendorf created a methodology for missionary leadership selection and training that developed and expanded over the course of his 38-year ministry. Through the far-reaching impact of this methodology, 18th century Moravian missionaries successfully carried the gospel to many nations and established a missiological perspective that would inform God's people for centuries to come.

This paper explores the key characteristics of Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf's mission theology that influenced the early Moravian missional practice. After discussing the early eighteenth century European historical context and the Spirit-renewal of the Herrnhut community, the paper considers Zinzendorf's theology on the death of Christ, the prominent role of the Holy Spirit, and harvesting the "first fruits." These theological distinctives contributed in determining the motivation and message of these pioneer Protestant missionaries. It then takes into account some of the subsequent methods such as working with the marginalized, practicing the love of Christ in cultural humility, and preaching the gospel in the vernacular. The main contributions of the early Moravians to mission were that they brought an understanding that spiritual renewal preceded mission renewal, the atoning death of Christ is central to mission theology, and a Protestant recognition that it had an obligation to do mission. On the other hand, the foremost negative aspects of Moravian mission were their obsession with the physical death of Christ and an ignorance of the broader social issues that at times resulted in a lack of contextualization, religious syncretism, indifference to social justice, and extreme subjectivism.

The Book of Kells is an ornately illustrated manuscript of the four Gospels with several historic records and a limited glossary of Hebrew names. The book was translated from Jerome's Latin Bible and named after the Columban monastery of Kells in County Meath, Ireland. Tradition holds that the work was begun on Iona, Scotland, to honor Columba (d. 597). After a violent Viking raid in 802, the Celtic monks fled to Kells and took the manuscript with them, where it was completed. Keywords: book of kells, manuscript of the four Gospels; script, examples of Irish handwriting in existence; emblems of vines, dragons, fish, serpents, and the cross; annals of ulster; the manuscript, “the chief treasure of the western world”

Innocent Figourovsky was a Russian Orthodox missionary to Beijing (Peking), China, who administered the mission for 33 years. Leaving Russia in 1897, Archimandrite Figourovsky found the Russian Orthodox missions in China with no more than 500 baptized members. Six previous mission expeditions had ministered mainly to expatriate Russian merchants engaged in the tea trade and guards of the Imperial Palace (descendents of the 45 Russian prisoners taken in 1685 at Albazin), focusing on diplomatic, scholastic, and publishing activities. The reasons for the lack of evangelistic and educational progress were the insufficient financial support from the Russian government to preach in places beyond the capital, the discouragement of that government toward any effort to convert the Chinese population, and the missionaries arriving without any knowledge of the Chinese language and culture. Keywords: figourovsky, innocent (1863–1931); Russian orthodox missionary to beijing (peking), china; “the grand old bishop”; mission magazine, chinese good news

The Russian Orthodox monk Paul Ivanovsky was sent first as a missionary to Zabaikal (present-day Buryat Republic) and then after studying Korean at the Vladivostok Oriental Institute, in 1906 to the Korean mission in Seoul as the second archimandrite, directing it for 6 years. Keywords: ivanovsky, paul (1875–1920); Russian orthodox monk; korean orthodox church

Stephan's mission was to the Zyrian people of Perm, a nomadic Finnish tribe in the Ural Mountains, northwest of Siberia, Russia. He grew up in Veliki Ustyug in northwestern Siberia during the Mongol period. At 25 Stephan entered the monastery of St. Gregory of Nazianzus in Rostov to learn Greek and patristics and become a missionary to Siberia. Thirteen years later he left the monastery and traveled north to live among the Finno-Ugric Zyrian tribes at Ust-Vim. Keywords: stephan of perm (1340–1396); stephan's mission, the zyrian people of perm; zyrian translations

Innocent Veniaminov (John Popov) was a Russian Orthodox missionary priest to eastern Siberia and Alaska. In 1823 Veniaminov went with his wife Catherine and family to the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. His ministry from the beginning had three goals: to visit the people of the surrounding islands; to create a place where the natives could hear the word of God; and to preach in the indigenous language. He considered his first duty to teach the Bible to the inhabitants. Yet because they were scattered over large distances he also made translation a priority so that the Aleut people might read and listen to God's word in their mother tongue. Keywords: veniaminov, innocent (1797–1878); Russian orthodox missionary priest; Russian orthodox mission society

A French explorer, hermit, and missionary, Charles Eugene de Foucauld was born in Strasbourg. Although coming from a devout Catholic family, he lived a depraved life as an aristocrat and a cavalry lieutenant in Algeria and Morocco. In 1883–1884 de Foucauld secretly explored Morocco, and four years later published Reconnaissance au Maroc. For his scientific observations during this expedition he was honored by the Paris Geographical Society. Keywords: french explorer, hermit, and missionary; spiritual searching; De Foucauld's first monastic rule; the little brothers of jesus, living a contemplative life today; catholic orders, tamanrasset as their spiritual center

A monk and bishop who pioneered Western monasticism in Gaul, Martin of Tours was born at Sabaria in Pannonia (present-day Hungary), the son of a Roman tribune. At Pavia in northern Italy he became a catechumen at 10, and at 15 was enlisted by his father in the Roman army, where he served in Emperor Julian's bodyguard. Three years later, while a calvary officer stationed at Amiens in Gaul (present-day France), he cut and gave half his military cloak to a beggar at the city gates. In a dream he saw Christ wearing the half cloak he had given to the poor man. This incident moved him to be baptized and to serve as a soldier of Christ. Keywords: Martin of tours (c.316–397); army at worms; bishop of tours; pastoral and evangelistic duties; patron saint of france

Macarius Gloukharev was a Russian Orthodox missionary who served for 14 years in the Altai Mountains, Siberia. At 25 he became a professor of church history and the German language at the Ekaterinoslov seminary in Poltava, positioning himself for a distinguished academic and ecclesiastical career. He then encountered a group of hesychastic monks who were influenced by the teachings of Paisy Velichkovsky, a Russian elder at Mount Athos, Greece, who had translated the Philokalia into Russian. This work concerned the spiritual practice of hesychasm: through silence and continual prayer, scriptural meditation, and the observance of the sacraments, the whole being may be united in fellowship with Christ and the Holy Spirit. This teaching caused a missionary renewal in the Russian Orthodox Church in the 19th century. Keywords: gloukharev, macarius (1792–1847); Russian orthodox missionary; philokalia into Russian

For 43 years Herman faithfully served the Alaskan natives, instructing the native Koniag Eskimos and the transplanted Aleuts in the basics of the Christian faith and how to improve their lives through agriculture and simple crafts. The Russian monk aligned himself from the beginning with the Alaskan native peoples, employing the mission strategy of the Orthodox Church in establishing Christian communities among shamanistic tribes more by example than preaching. The goal was to establish a self-governing American Church in Alaska respecting and using the native languages and creative arts and enjoying administrative independence within the community of the Orthodox churches. Keywords: herman of alaska (1756–1837); mission strategy, of the orthodox church; herman's ascetic existence; alaskan orthodox missions

Intake of food by hungry rats was reduced 50 percent below normal after their blood had been mixed with that of satiated rats. Intake of food by deprived rats was not reduced when the donor rat was deprived of food for 24 hours prior to mixing of the blood or when a deprived donor was fed to satiety immediately before such transfusion.