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Leadership is a process where leaders enact certain behaviors to influence followers. Yet, each follower may view the leader’s enactment differently, owing to differences in disposition and context. Here we examine leadership as a property attributed by followers to their leader, influenced by both the leader and followers’ personal attributes and the situation in which leaders and followers interact. Guiding this study, we asked: how do followers’ affect (negative and positive traits), motivation (regulatory focus), and cognitions (identity) and their congruence with their leader’s corresponding attributes influence their ratings of transformational leadership? Participants operated in extreme situations where their lives were often at risk because of exposure to combat. Results based on a sample of 1587 US Army soldiers operating in 262 units show that when there is a higher congruence between leaders’ and followers’ positive affect, promotion focus, relational identity, and collective identity, follower ratings of transformational leadership are higher, whereas a higher level of incongruence between followers’ and leaders’ positive and negative affect predicted lower ratings of transformational leadership. These findings differed based on the soldiers’ time spent in deployment and the level of combat exposure they experienced. The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/ or publication of this article. The authors received financial and logistical support for this research from the US Army Center for the Army Profession and Ethic. The third author's research contribution was supported by the grant “Advancing Leadership Research” (W911NF-18-2-0049) US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI).

We offer a comprehensive review of the theoretical underpinnings and existing empirical evidence in the implicit leadership and implicit followership theories domain. After briefly touching on the historical roots of information-processing approaches to leadership and leader categorization theory, we focus on current contextualized and dynamic perspectives. We specifically present neural network approaches and adaptive resonance processes that guide leadership perceptions. We further address measurement issues, emerging areas of study such as implicit leadership theories, and identity and cross-cultural issues. We offer specific avenues for future research in the form of a systematic list of unanswered research questions and further outline leadership development implications.

The study of leadership emergence has increased substantially over the past few decades. However, due to a lack of integrative theory, we believe limited advancement has been made regarding the full process of leadership emergence. To address this concern, first, we conceptualize the leadership emergence process from a complexity perspective and define emergence as a dynamic, interactive process grounded in three principles of emergent phenomena. Second, we review how previous research has modeled leadership emergence by focusing on the content areas of the lower-level elements, the mechanisms that facilitate their emergence, and the dynamism of the process once it has emerged. Third, based on the findings from the review, we introduce a process-oriented framework of leadership emergence. Fourth, we offer propositions to guide developing and testing emergent leadership processes, and we conclude with recommendations for future leadership process research. Our hope is that by realigning the study of leadership emergence with complexity and multilevel theory, we can reorient this area to focusing more on the process mechanisms within emergence, connecting back to research progress made over 60 years ago.

The concept of boundaryless careers characterizes emerging career patterns that are less dependent on traditional organizational career management. Based on an evidence-based review of literature on the relationship between career boundarylessness and career success published from 1994 to 2018, we found that boundaryless careers have mixed effects on the various indictors of career success, and these effects depend on the operationalization of career boundarylessness, the motives (voluntary vs. involuntary), career competencies, adaptive capabilities and career resources held by individuals, as well as the structural constraints and institutional support for boundary-crossing behaviors. In addition, career success was also found to predict subsequent career mobility. Based on these findings, we develop an integrative model to understand the complicated and dynamic relationship between boundaryless careers and career success. This review serves as an important step to integrate theories and research on boundaryless careers and career success, and more interdisciplinary work should be done in the future to examine this question.

Congress first enacted the generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax in 1976 to protect the estate and gift tax base and to ensure that extraordinary fortunes would bear their fair share of the transfer tax burden. Nearly a half-century into the life of the GST tax, those goals remain unrealized. In recent decades, high-net-worth individuals have succeeded in shifting hundreds of billions of dollars to “dynasty trusts” that—under current law—are poised to escape federal wealth transfer taxation indefinitely. The rise of dynasty trusts reduces the revenue-raising potential of the estate and gift taxes and allows a privileged class to exert vast economic and political power based solely on an accident of birth. This white paper presents a legislative reform agenda designed to reinvigorate the GST tax, stem the rise of dynasty trusts, and bring hundreds of billions of dollars back within the federal transfer tax base. We highlight three flaws in current law that account for the GST tax’s failure: (1) very high exemption amounts; (2) loopholes that allow high-net-worth taxpayers to stuff GST-exempt trusts with assets worth many multiples of the exemption amount; and (3) the lack of any durational limit on dynasty trusts in states that have abolished the rule against perpetuities. Our three-part reform agenda addresses each of these flaws. First, we propose a reduction in the GST exemption from the current level ($11.7 million) to the 2009 level ($3.5 million). A $3.5 million GST exemption still would be higher, in inflation-adjusted terms, than the exemption amount advocated by the Reagan administration. Second, we propose a set of common-sense loophole closers that would prevent high-net-worth taxpayers from stuffing GST-exempt trusts with assets worth far more than the exemption amount. Third, we propose to limit the maximum duration of a trust’s GST exemption to two generations, with an exception that would allow tax-free distributions to beneficiaries who were alive at the time of the trust’s inception. Our plan would shore up the estate and gift tax base and stem the rise of dynasty trusts while allowing more than 99 percent of American families to pass wealth across multiple generations tax-free.

Three transfer tax minimization mechanisms—zeroed-out grantor retained annuity trusts (GRATs), intentionally defective grantor trusts (IDGTs), and family-controlled entities with steep valuation discounts—significantly shrink the federal estate and gift tax base. This white paper explains how Congress can close all three loopholes. We estimate that these actions—along with complementary base-protecting and base-expanding proposals—would raise more than $65 billion over the fiscal year 2022 to fiscal year 2031 window (and possibly much more than $65 billion). They also would enhance the progressivity of the federal tax system and bolster the long-term revenue-raising capacity of the estate and gift taxes. To summarize key conclusions: — Congress should repeal section 2702(b)(1), the provision that enables high-net-worth individuals to achieve extraordinary transfer tax savings via GRATs; — Congress should harmonize the income tax and transfer tax treatment of IDGTs, preferably by treating these trusts as nongrantor trusts for income tax purposes; — Congress should limit lack-of-marketability discounts and eliminate lack-of-control discounts with respect to transfers of interests in family-controlled entities; and — Congress should supplement these three reforms with additional base-protecting and base-broadening measures: shifting to a tax-inclusive base for gift taxes; limiting the gift tax annual exclusion for transfers in trust; and expanding the requirement of consistency in value for transfer and income tax purposes. All of these steps remain relevant—and in some respects, even more urgent—if Congress enacts the Biden-Harris administration’s capital income tax reform proposal, which would limit the tax-free step-up in basis at death to the first $1 million of unrealized gains ($2 million per couple). Unless Congress secures the estate and gift tax base, high-net-worth taxpayers will respond to stepped-up basis reform by exploiting transfer-tax loopholes even more aggressively. For this reason, estate and gift tax loophole closers and stepped-up basis reform should be considered complements, not substitutes.

Although leadership and followership processes are flexible and fluid, our theoretical and empirical knowledge of the short-term dynamics in individuals’ leadership and followership identities are ...

Applied research, such as leadership, should inform practice. However, there have been calls for researchers to do more bridge the gap between theory and practice. This session bring together a gro...

Addressing the controversial debate about narcissism and its impact on organizations, this article pursues three main purposes: First, we aimed to assess the factorial structure of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI) in an applied organizational context. In the overall sample of 926 German-speaking managers (Studies 1-3), we found a bifactor model differentiating a general narcissism factor from narcissistic grandiosity and vulnerability to be advantageous over a traditional second-order factor model. Second, we sought to establish the relationships between narcissism and leaders’ drive to aggress against followers (i.e., abusive supervision intent). Above and beyond the general narcissism factor, narcissistic vulnerability consistently predicted leaders’ abusive supervision intent, while narcissistic grandiosity did not. This result also held with an additional measure of grandiose narcissism, the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) in Study 2. Third, we intended to provide initial insights into the underlying mechanisms linking leaders’ narcissistic vulnerability to their abusive supervision intent. An experimental design in Study 3 identified one reason why narcissistic vulnerability drives leaders to aggress against their followers: they were prone to respond to failure with internal attributions and shame. In sum, this research is the first to point out leaders’ narcissistic vulnerability as a risk-factor for organizations. It advances the current understanding of its conceptual nature and practical implications.

We investigated the status of leadership theory integration by reviewing 14 years of published research (2000 through 2013) in 10 top journals (864 articles). The authors of these articles examined 49 leadership approaches/theories, and in 293 articles, 3 or more of these leadership approaches were included in their investigations. Focusing on these articles that reflected relatively extensive integration, we applied an inductive approach and used graphic network analysis as a guide for drawing conclusions about the status of leadership theory integration. All 293 articles included in the analysis identified 1 focal theory that was integrated with 2 or more supporting leadership theories. The 6 leadership approaches most often appearing as the focal theory were transformational leadership, charismatic leadership, strategic leadership, leadership and diversity, participative/shared leadership, and the trait approach to leadership. On the basis of inductive reflections on our analysis, we make two key observations. First, the 49 focal leadership theories qualify as middle-range theories that are ripe for integration. Second, drawing from social network theory, we introduce the term “ theoretical neighborhood” to describe the focal theoretical networks. Our graphical inductive analyses reveal potential connections among neighboring middle-range leadership theories that merit investigation and, hence, identify promising future directions for achieving greater theoretical integration. We provide an online supplement with 10 additional leadership theory graphs and analyses: leadership in teams and decision groups, ethical leadership, leader and follower cognitions, leadership emergence, leadership development, emotions and leadership, implicit leadership, leader-member exchange, authentic leadership, and identity and identification process theories of leadership.

This chapter provides a complement to the perceiver-as-scientist viewpoint emphasized by most extant attribution theory research. It shows that researchers concerned with attribution theory are urged to consider an alternative model of social perceivers and actors: prehistoric man. An alternative analogy that is not subject to the limitations is suggested. The chapter demonstrates that implicit attributional processes are important to organizational scientists. It summarizes what people know about implicit learning and implicit memory. How these implicit processes may produce attributional understanding, how implicit and explicit attributional processes may be related, how such implicit attributional processes can be measured, and how this perspective relates to other theories regarding information processing in organizations. The position is that primitive implicit information processes and more contemporary explicit processes operate concurrently in all situations. With few exceptions, but has also used many common sense ideas as a basis for theory and methodology.

This chapter focuses on integration of embodied cognition and sensemaking on instances of sensemaking that occur between leaders and followers. It examines sensemaking from an embodied cognition perspective affords insight into how organization members utilize multiple modalities within their physical environment to arrive upon meaning. The chapter discusses leadership in a general sense, a specific subset of occupations could benefit from the investigation of embodied cognition as it relates to sensemaking. More explicitly incorporating embodied processes into authentic leadership research could further elucidate the effectiveness of authentic leaders. The chapter reviews the results of several experiments demonstrating that embodied states occupy central roles in cognition and affect. Embodied cognitive approaches view the representation of knowledge as dependent on brain structures involved in perception, action, and introspection rather than based on abstract semantic networks. Embodied cognition also provides a contribution in this regard by explaining the manner in which action and cognition are indelibly tied together.

In the business context, there is a broad spectrum of practices that potentially harm others, yet might benefit the organization. We examined the influence of individual and situational differences in predicting (un)ethical behavior in these moral gray zones using an in-basket exercise that included covert moral issues in which managers could give unethical instructions to their followers. Results show that individual differences in moral disengagement directly predicted unethical behavior and functioned as a mediator of the relationship between authenticity and unethical behavior. Furthermore, effects differed in weak compared to strong situations. Study 2, replicated the results from Study 1, developed a direct test of the situational strength hypothesis, and showed that high versus low situation strength moderated the relation of moral disengagement to unethical behavior.

Prevailing perspectives on time and change often emphasize the forward movement of time and the relative stability of attributes, an emphasis that fosters theories of organizational evolution as a linear progression of a past that moves to the present that moves to the future. While useful in many respects, this perspective obscures the uncertainty of emerging organizational phenomena, and it offers little insight into the rare and unpredictable events that change the course of history. To address these concerns, we draw on quantum mechanics and quantum probability theories to present a quantum approach to time and change as a framework for understanding organizational complexity and the common decision-making errors that lead to organizational failures within uncertain environments. This perspective also explains how organizations (or societies) can experience unforeseen potentialities that radically change their development by conceptualizing the future as existing in a state of potentiality that collap...

This experimental study investigated the effect of a leader's expression of happy versus nervous emotions on subsequent perceptions of leadership and ratings of traits associated with implicit leadership theories (ILTs). Being fast and universally understood, emotions are ideal stimuli for investigating the dynamic effects of ILTs, which were understood in this study in terms of the constraints that expressed emotions impose on the connectionist networks that activate ILTs. The experimental design contrasted videotaped and still frame presentations of a leadership event; however, this methodological factor had no significant effects and analyses were thus collapsed across this factor. Key findings were that the expression of a happy versus nervous emotion at the end of a problem-solving sequence had multiple effects: happy emotions resulted in higher leadership ratings, higher trait ratings, greater correlations among trait ratings, and greater dependence of trait ratings on leadership perceptions. An exploratory model suggested that leadership impressions mediated the effects of facial emotions on trait ratings. The discussion further links the study findings with interpretations in terms of ILTs and many types of constraints on these cognitive structures. It also suggests ways to integrate these ideas with advances in neuroscience research.

A growing body of leadership literature focuses on leader and follower identity dynamics, levels, processes of development and outcomes. Despite the importance of the phenomena, there has been surprisingly little effort to systematically review the widely dispersed literature on leader and follower identity. In this review we map existing studies on a multilevel framework that integrates levels-of-the self (individual, relational and collective) with the levels-of-analysis (intrapersonal, interpersonal and group) on which leader or follower identity work takes place. We also synthesize work from multiple research paradigms, such as social psychology experimental studies, narrative accounts of leaders' identity work and field studies on antecedents, outcomes, mediating mechanisms and boundary conditions. Finally, we outline implications for leadership development and call attention to key themes we see ripe for future research.

Although in the early years of the Journal leadership research was rare and focused primarily on traits differentiating leaders from nonleaders, subsequent to World War II the research area developed in 3 major waves of conceptual, empirical, and methodological advances: (a) behavioral and attitude research; (b) behavioral, social-cognitive, and contingency research; and (c) transformational, social exchange, team, and gender-related research. Our review of this work shows dramatic increases in sophistication from early research focusing on personnel issues associated with World War I to contemporary multilevel models and meta-analyses on teams, shared leadership, leader-member exchange, gender, ethical, abusive, charismatic, and transformational leadership. Yet, many of the themes that characterize contemporary leadership research were also present in earlier research. (PsycINFO Database Record

In this article, we provide a brief review of the current and past research on leadership perceptions and performance. We then describe four principles that have emerged from many decades of research, which can provide new directions for future leadership theory and research.

Scholarly research on the topic of leadership has witnessed a dramatic increase over the last decade, resulting in the development of diverse leadership theories. To take stock of established and developing theories since the beginning of the new millennium, we conducted an extensive qualitative review of leadership theory across 10 top-tier academic publishing outlets that included The Leadership Quarterly, Administrative Science Quarterly, American Psychologist, Journal of Management, Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Organizational Science, and Personnel Psychology. We then combined two existing frameworks (Gardner, Lowe, Moss, Mahoney, & Cogliser, 2010; Lord & Dinh, 2012) to provide a process-oriented framework that emphasizes both forms of emergence and levels of analysis as a means to integrate diverse leadership theories. We then describe the implications of the findings for future leadership research and theory.

In this article, we identify five disparate themes that guide the processing of ethical judgment and behavior on the basis of current research drawn from multiple disciplinary fields. We then suggest directions for integrative research that consider ethical judgment and behavior as emergent outcomes of dynamic processing systems.

Leader actions and their impact on follower, group, and organizational outcomes tend to be investigated at the aggregate person level, which may result in confusion between perception and performance-based evaluations of effectiveness. We advocate an alternative approach: assessing the link of leader behaviors to outcomes at the lower level of events, where adaptive leader responses and their variable influence on subsequent outcomes can be better assessed. To illustrate the potential benefits of an event-level approach, we first define events and how they differ by developing a taxonomy consisting of seven event dimensions. Important leadership implications of each event dimension are briefly discussed. We then apply our taxonomy to three existing theories of leadership to highlight its value in understanding performance. Strategies for measuring and researching leadership performance with our taxonomy are then introduced and discussed. Finally, event dimensions are used to address questions of critical significance to future leadership theory, such as determining what type of leadership is needed and ascertaining the leadership skills that are most likely to result in effective performance.

We develop and test a model based on social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1991) that links abusive supervision to followers' ethical intentions and behaviors. Results from a sample of 2,572 military members show that abusive supervision was negatively related to followers' moral courage and their identification with the organization's core values. In addition, work unit contexts with varying degrees of abusive supervision, reflected by the average level of abusive supervision reported by unit members, moderated relationships between the level of abusive supervision personally experienced by individuals and both their moral courage and their identification with organizational values. Moral courage and identification with organizational values accounted for the relationship between abusive supervision and followers' ethical intentions and unethical behaviors. These findings suggest that abusive supervision may undermine moral agency and that being personally abused is not required for abusive supervision to negatively influence ethical outcomes.

This research systematically analyzed the effect of leadership (coaches and owners) on organizational performance in the National Football League (NFL) during the 1970 through 1992 seasons. In addition, it examined the relation of stable individual differences in personality of NFL leaders with performance outcomes for both coaches and owners. Results revealed that leadership added substantially to the prediction of performance in the NFL, even after controlling for non-leadership variables such as quality of competition and year. Furthermore, one facet of Conscientiousness – Deliberateness – showed strong linear relations with all performance measures. The results of both studies also revealed that hierarchical level of leadership was an important moderator, with coaches having greater impact than owners. The desirability of studying leadership in the context of the NFL was recognized and suggestions were provided on the direction that research might take.

We review the leadership literature published in this journal during the 50 years since its inception. Our focus is on three major contributions to leadership theory – social-cognitive, leader–member exchange, and social identity theories – as well as the role in advancing leadership theory of seminal theories published in this journal. During this period, the conceptualization of leadership has become more inclusive and dynamic, expanding to include both leaders and followers, and their team and organizational context. Dynamics pertain not only to the development over time in leader–member relationship, but also to within-person changes in active identities and behavioral styles that repeatedly occur. This complexity creates sensemaking challenges for all parties, as they both create and experience leadership processes.

We develop and test a model linking ethical leadership with unit ethical culture, both across and within organizational levels, examining how both leadership and culture relate to ethical cognition...

This article assesses the conceptual and methodological limitations associated with traditional dispositional approaches to personality and leadership, and it proposes that more process-oriented approaches will better enable leadership research to explore emergent leadership phenomena such as perception and effectiveness. By reconceptualizing the structure of the self as a dynamic, but stable entity, we maintain that an explicit focus on events as a fundamental level of analysis is needed, which will help reduce the inaccuracies of aggregate retrospective leadership measures that collapse across different situations and time. Event-level research methodologies can also help account for the effects that situational contingencies have on leader behavioral flexibility, the development of leadership skills, and leadership emergence within shared or distributive leadership structures.

We maintain that the requisite complexity of collectives is an important component of collective learning and adaptive performance. Collective requisite complexity is comprised of two components: static complexity, which consists of group or team heterogeneity in general cognitive, social, self, and affective domains; and dynamic complexity, which is a social interactive process by which one person’s contributions transform those of another. We propose that social-regulation processes involving active goals, identity, and affect, as well as formal and emergent leadership processes, such as shared leadership, provide the key social structures within which dynamic complexity emerges. We also propose that successful adaptation to task or organizational demands, as well as social feedback, transform these structural aspects through “double-loop learning” and provide a basis for individual and collective learning.

This paper examines the relation of individual perceptual, conscious, and self-regulatory processes to the generation of requisite complexity in formal and informal leaders. Requisite complexity is a complex adaptive systems concept that pertains to the ability of a system to adjust to the requirements of a changing environment by achieving equivalent levels of complexity. We maintain that requisite complexity has both static and dynamic aspects that involve four domains (general, social, self, and affective complexity), with each being more or less important for leaders depending upon the task requirements they face. Dynamic complexity draws on these static components and also creates new aspects of complexity through the interaction of mental processes. The implications of these issues for understanding leader adaptation and development are also discussed.

Although organizational practices and leadership processes are contingent upon knowledge acquisition and use, the changing conceptualizations of knowledge in cognitive science are often overlooked in research. Nevertheless, leadership research has inherently reflected shifting views of knowledge, transitioning from an emphasis on the classical symbolic view to connectionism and most recently to an embodied, embedded view of cognition. We argue that different leadership processes uniquely draw on these three types of knowledge and that excluding a connectionist or embodied, embedded view of knowledge creates an impoverished understanding of leadership. To illustrate this problem, we provide two follower-centric and two leader-centric examples of leadership processes which rely on the multiple forms of knowledge described herein: followers' attributional reasoning regarding leadership, followers' perceptions and memories of leaders, processes that generate leaders' behavioral choices, and finally, leaders' sensemaking/decision-making. We also discuss how these three perspectives could be integrated in future research to provide a richer understanding of leadership processes, particularly those based on collective, interactive leadership processes that emerge in groups of individuals.

After reviewing key findings regarding leadership categorization theory, we develop new perspectives regarding the design of behavioral measures of leadership and the implications of shared leadership and complex adaptive leadership conceptualizations of leadership. In particular, by applying recent developments in cognitive science, we explain how an understanding of symbolic, connectionist, and embodied representations of knowledge can benefit behavioral measures of leadership. Additionally, we address some practical issues associated with the measurement of leadership and argue that ratings which tap episodic memory at the event level may be more meaningful than ratings based on semantic memory. Finally, we discuss how notions of shared leadership and of leaders as catalysts for complexity can create unique complications for leadership perceptions, coordinated behavior within a group, and the measurement of leadership.

Our purpose was to develop a new method of questionnaire administration that better captures the role of affect and embodied cognitions in leadership ratings. Study 1 participants visualized their current work supervisor or a neutral stimulus and provided ratings of their work supervisor. Study 2 participants viewed a leadership event and made ratings of leadership and affect. Participants later made identical ratings after visualization. In both quasi-experiments, participants' affect was more strongly related to their leadership ratings following leader visualization. Study 2 showed that participants' leadership and affect ratings were more consistent with their initial ratings, and it showed better episodic memory recall following leader visualization.

The authors provide one of the first tests of whether justice has effects at implicit or subconscious levels. By manipulating justice in a laboratory experiment, they found that the activation of interdependent and individual self-identities were higher when people experienced fairness and unfairness, respectively. Although these effects occurred at both implicit and explicit levels, they were stronger in the former case. These identity-based effects proved to be important because they mediated the effects of justice on trust and on cooperative and counterproductive behaviors. Implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.

Adopting a control theory framework, the authors tested a dynamic perspective which suggests that satisfaction and motivation during goal-striving depends not only on discrepancies (i.e., differences between current and desired states) but also on velocities (i.e., rates at which discrepancies change over time). Two studies with different approaches and methodologies were conducted and support was found for the primary hypothesis that velocity information predicts affective and cognitive reactions incremental to discrepancy information. In addition, a Discrepancy × Velocity interaction influenced task satisfaction, success expectancy, and goal commitment. Results are discussed in relation to the broader context of self-regulation.

In a longitudinal study, the authors examined the role of students' rate of progress, or velocity, in goal-striving over one semester of a college-level Introductory Psychology course. At both mid-course and near end-of-course time periods, results demonstrated that velocity uniquely contributed to the prediction of students' performance satisfaction, mental focus, and goal revision, above and beyond the influence of performance-goal discrepancies and ability. Specifically, velocity demonstrated main effects on performance satisfaction and mental focus. Velocity significantly interacted with goal importance in the prediction of goal revision. The authors call for increased attention to the role of velocity in self-regulation. Dans une etude longitudinale, les auteurs examinent le role du taux de progres des etudiants ou leur rapiditea atteindre des buts sur un semestre pour un cours d'introduction a la psychologie en faculte. Deux mesures ont ete faites: l'une a la moitie du semestre et l'autre a la fin de ce meme semestre. Les resultats montrent que uniquement la rapidite contribue a predire la satisfaction de la performance des etudiants, la concentration, et la revision de l'objectif quels que soient les ecarts entre le but de la performance et les capacites. Plus specifiquement, la rapidite a des effets importants sur la satisfaction de la performance et la concentration. La rapidite interagit significativement avec l'importance des buts dans le cas ou l'on envisage leur revision. Les auteurs soulignent le role de la rapidite sur l'auto-regulation.

We expand the conceptualization of positive leadership and hypothesize that leaders' ability to influence followers across varied complex situations will be enhanced through the development of a rich and multifaceted self-construct. Utilizing self-complexity theory and other aspects of research on self-representation, we show how the structure and structural dynamics of leaders' self-constructs are linked to their varied role demands by calling forth cognitions, affects, goals and values, expectancies, and self-regulatory plans that enhance performance. Through this process, a leader is able to bring the “right stuff” (the appropriate ensemble of attributes) to bear on and succeed in the multiple challenges of leadership. We suggest future research to develop dimensional typologies related to leadership-relevant aspects of the self and also to link individual positive self-complexity to more aggregate positive organizational processes. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of imagery in a leader's speech on listeners' perceptions of the leader's charisma. A former US president's inaugural address was rewritten to create low and high imagery versions, and audio recordings of the two speeches were made. Participants were randomly assigned to high or low speech imagery conditions. After listening to the speech, they provided ratings on various summary leadership measures. The high imagery speech resulted in higher ratings of charisma than the low imagery speech. This effect was partially mediated by state positive affect (having controlled for trait affect levels). High imagery led to increased charisma ratings partially through increasing listeners' state positive affect relative to their trait affect baseline level. Implications for theory are addressed.

We use principles from multilevel theory, complexity theory, and connectionist theory to integrate existing gender bias explanations into a comprehensive model of gender bias in leadership, one that can be used to examine and understand how throughout the leadership process gender bias occurs and can affect women negatively. The synthesis of connectionism and complexity theories provides an opportunity to suggest novel solutions to this important leadership problem, but it also shows why multiple solutions applied at individual, group, and organizational levels all may be required to change the way agents and systems of agents respond to potential female leaders.

The University of AkronSurveys of both academics and practitioners indicate that leadership is the most important topic within the realm of organizational behaviour. This chapter elaborates on the implications of a perceptual viewpoint for explaining the indirect effects of leadership on performance and presents a comprehensive and explicit theory of leadership perceptions that is derived from recent work in the social-cognitive area. This provides a more precise view of leadership perceptions than work derived from everyday experience with leadership. The chapter argues that leadership perceptions depend on both recognition-based and inferential processes and that both of these processes can occur using automatic or controlled modes of processing. It then examines the differential application and implications of this viewpoint to lower and upper hierarchical levels, elaborating on the fundamental role of perceptual processing at each of these levels and how perceptions relate to performance.

Accurate behavioral measurement is essential to developing a science of leadership, yet accurate measurement has remained elusive. The use of follower reports of leader behavior creates challenges given that a large body of basic and applied research suggests that behavioral ratings reflect not only recall of actual behaviors, but also inferences based on semantic memory, which may vary among individuals. In this paper, we examine several explanations for rater effects that are associated with follower individual differences, contextual factors, and even research methods, such as the type of measure used, that may bias ratings of leader behavior. We also develop a conceptual model to illustrate these processes. Finally, we offer potential solutions to increase accuracy in follower reports of leader behavior.

In two studies, we examined the joint effects of employed participants’ self-concept levels and perceptions of fairness on organizational attitudes and citizenship behavior intentions. We examined the effects of chronic self-concept activation in Study 1, whereas we primed the working self-concept in Study 2. Combining the results of both studies, we found support for our hypotheses that particular self-concept levels and organizational justice dimensions interact to predict various work-related outcomes. Specifically, we observed interactions between the relational self-concept and interactional justice, and between the collective self-concept and procedural justice, such that the justice–outcome relationships were stronger for those experiencing higher activation on the relevant self-concept level. Thus, as hypothesized, justice information is weighted differently depending on the particular level of self-concept that is active. In addition, interesting direct effects of employees’ self-concepts were also observed. We discuss the implications of these findings and the importance of considering the self-concept in conjunction with organizational justice.

This study took a unique approach to the study of anticipatory injustice by differentiating between implicit and explicit justice judgments when participants were faced with a manager of similar or dissimilar race. Automatic, implicit justice expectations were assessed using reaction time in addition to the more traditional paper and pencil measures of justice expectations. Results indicated that regardless of manager race, minority status significantly predicted implicit (but not explicit) injustice expectations such that minorities were more likely to expect unfair treatment. Implicit expectations of injustice, as assessed by reaction time, were significantly related to explicit expectations. Finally, explicit expectations of injustice significantly predicted subordinate reduced self-esteem, but not stress levels. The implications of the results and the usefulness of a new implicit measure of justice expectations are discussed.