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The ability to interact and communicate effectively in different cultural contexts has never been more relevant for football coaches because cultural diversity in football has increased in the past decades. Yet, there is a reduced number of institutions that are currently offering cultural training to coaches, and it is unknown whether coaches feel the need for such training. This study aimed to explore the cross-cultural training needs of 115 football coaches with national and/or international experience (M = 13.4 years; SD = 8.53). To maximise recruitment reach, an online survey with open-ended questions was used followed by a qualitative thematic analysis. There were four master themes: cross-cultural training needs in the global football market; cross-cultural awareness is important in football; football-specific cultural training; and training by migrant coaches, no matter how. Most coaches perceived a benefit from cultural training in preparation for international appointments, but some felt that coaches already had cultural awareness because they manage individuals and adjust easily to different cultures. Preferences were shown for cross-cultural training delivered by migrant coaches and with a football-specific focus. This is the first study to explore the perceptions of football coaches about cross-cultural awareness and training needs and provides insights to providers of coach education.

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of predictability on dual-task performance by systematically manipulating predictability in either one of two tasks, as well as between tasks. According to capacity-sharing accounts of multitasking, assuming a general pool of resources two tasks can draw upon, predictability should reduce the need for resources and allow more resources to be used by the other task. However, it is currently not well understood what drives resource-allocation policy in dual tasks and which resource allocation policies participants pursue. We used a continuous tracking task together with an audiomotor task and manipulated advance visual information about the tracking path in the first experiment and a sound sequence in the second experiments (2a/b). Results show that performance predominantly improved in the predictable task but not in the unpredictable task, suggesting that participants did not invest more resources into the unpredictable task. One possible explanation was that the re-investment of resources into another task requires some relationship between the tasks. Therefore, in the third experiment, we covaried the two tasks by having sounds 250 ms before turning points in the tracking curve. This enabled participants to improve performance in both tasks, suggesting that resources were shared better between tasks.

Cultural intelligence is the capability of a person to adapt effectively to different cultures. This capability has been investigated in areas such as management, military, and education. However, there are no studies in sport referring to this capability. It is important to study cultural intelligence in sport because of the increased globalisation resulting from coaches’ and athletes’ migration across countries and clubs. This study aimed to develop the Cultural Intelligence in Sport (CQsport) and examine its factorial structure and psychometric properties; and examine coaches’ cultural intelligence and their perceived cross-cultural training needs. Participants were 209 football coaches either with or without international experience. Participants completed an online survey consisting of CQsport and a cross-cultural training needs questionnaire. We used a multigroup analysis, within the structural equation model (SEM) approach, to test group differences in the CQsport and performed a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for comparisons across groups concerning cross-cultural training needs. Coaches with international experience rated themselves with more cultural intelligence in the sports context than coaches with no international experience on the metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioural dimensions. Coaches with international experience also self-rated fewer training needs than coaches without international experience. This study represents the first attempt to examine football coaches’ cultural intelligence and their cross-cultural training needs.

Sport migration is an important topic of global migration. It can capture migration patterns and the reliance on networks, which are specific to sports. This study seeks to identify the patterns and networks of Portuguese football coaches’ migration between 2009 and 2013. This period is important because these were years of financial crisis with high rates of unemployment. We collected data about destination countries of migrant coaches. For coaches working abroad in 2013, we also collected data about their career path and networks including the assistant coaches and players with whom they had previously worked. The results showed that the destination of Portuguese football coaches involves both peripheral and central areas of football prestige. The pattern of migration suggests an overlap of economic, historical and cultural factors. On the other hand, the network relations of Portuguese football coaches were prominent in a zone of high prestige close to the native country, and in a zone with high financial incentives but lower football prestige. Taken together, these results highlight the career specificities of coaches who migrate to different countries including the role of networks on a football coaching career abroad.

In this study we investigated the effect of predictability on dual-task performance in two experiments. In the first experiment 33 participants separately practiced a continuous tracking task and an auditory reaction time task. Both tasks had a repeating element that made them predictable; in the tracking task this was a repeating segment, and in the auditory task this was an auditory sequence. In addition, one group obtained explicit knowledge about the repeating sequence in the tracking task while the other group trained implicitly. After training, single- and dual-task performance was tested at a post test and retention test. Results showed that predictability only improved performance in the predictable tasks themselves and dual-task costs disappeared for the tracking task. To see whether the task-specific effect of predictability was the results of task prioritization, or because task representations did not have much chance to interact with each other, we conducted a second experiment. Using the same tasks as in Experiment 1, 39 participants now trained both tasks simultaneously. Results largely mirrored those of the first experiment, demonstrating that freed-up resources due to predictability in one task could not be re-invested to improve in the other task. We conclude that predictability has a positive but task-specific effect on dual-task performance. [Abstract copyright: Copyright: © 2021 The Author(s).]

Visual information and prior knowledge represent two different sources of predictability for tasks which each have been reported to have a beneficial effect on dual-task performance. What if the two were combined? Adding multiple sources of predictability might, on the one hand, lead to additive, beneficial effects on dual-tasking. On the other hand, it is conceivable that multiple sources of predictability do not increase dual-task performance further, as they complicate performance due to having to process information from multiple sources. In this study, we combined two sources of predictability, predictive visual information and prior knowledge (implicit learning and explicit learning) in a dual-task setup. 22 participants performed a continuous tracking task together with an auditory reaction time task over three days. The middle segment of the tracking task was repeating to promote motor learning, but only half of the participants was informed about this. After the practice blocks (day 3), we provided participants with predictive visual information about the tracking path to test whether visual information would add to beneficial effects of prior knowledge (additive effects of predictability). Results show that both predictive visual information and prior knowledge improved dual-task performance, presented simultaneously or in absence of each other. These results show that processing of information relevant for enhancement of task performance is unhindered by dual-task demands.

This study examined the effect of instructions and feedback on the integration of two tasks. Task-integration of covarying tasks are thought to help dual-task performance. With complete task integration of covarying dual tasks, a dual task becomes more like a single task and dual-task costs should be reduced as it is no longer conceptualized as a dual task. In the current study we tried to manipulate the extent to which tasks are integrated. We covaried a tracking task with an auditory go/no-go task and tried to manipulate the extent of task-integration by using two different sets of instructions and feedback. A group receiving task-integration promoting instructions and feedback (N = 18) and a group receiving task-separation instructions and feedback (N = 20) trained on a continuous tracking task. The tracking task covaried with the auditory go/no-go reaction time task because high-pitch sounds always occurred 250 ms before turns, which has been demonstrated to foster task integration. The tracking task further contained a repeating segment to investigate implicit learning. Results showed that instructions, feedback, or participants’ conceptualization of performing a single task versus a dual task did not significantly affect task integration. However, the covariation manipulation improved performance in both the tracking and the go/no-go task, exceeding performance in non-covarying and single tasks. We concluded that task integration between covarying motor tasks is a robust phenomenon that is not influenced by instructions or feedback.

Despite the well-documented benefits of physical activity (PA), physical inactivity remains a global public health concern. Particularly high levels of sedentarism prevail among young females, making them an important target population for PA behaviour intervention. The effectiveness of interventions designed for this population has not been rigorously analysed and previous reviews of PA interventions and their ability to target specific barriers and subgroups of society have produced inconsistent findings. Ecological models have proven instrumental in categorising factors that influence health behaviours on multiple levels (intrapersonal, interpersonal, organisational and environmental, and, policy and legislative). This narrative systematic review aims to collate, summarise and synthesise evidence pertaining to the characteristics of PA interventions aimed at young females in the UK (14 - 25 years), explore the measures used to evaluate intervention impact within this population, and to make recommendations for future PA intervention research through an ecological perspective. UK-based PA intervention studies including healthy females aged 14 - 25 were identified through five electronic databases. Two reviewers independently screened the studies for inclusion, data was extracted based upon agreed criteria, and results were discussed in light of the ecological model of health behaviour. From the 21 articles included in the analysis, 17 interventions took place in educational institutions. PA options were limited across, and within interventions, and only four studies employed qualitative methods to investigate intervention effectiveness. Utilizing the ecological model it was identified that 20 studies investigated intrapersonal factors such as body composition and self-efficacy, and only seven studies explored multiple levels of the model. In conclusion, PA interventions designed considering the influence and dynamic interplay of multi-level factors suggested by the ecological model are likely to be valuable in promoting sustainable PA; such interventions aimed at young females are currently lacking. Future research should employ a variety of methodologies to evaluate intervention effectiveness.

Aims The present study used a multi-method approach to qualitatively explore whether the perceptions of young women and girls and exercise providers are aligned in terms of the factors that influence participation with the aim to better understand how these factors influence participation. Design Thematic analysis was used to synthesise focus groups and interview data within the intrapersonal, interpersonal, organisation, environmental, and policy levels of an ecological model. Methods Interviews were conducted with 4 experienced exercise providers (2 men, 2 women). Focus groups were conducted with 21 young women and girls (M = 17.9, SD = 2.4) who had participated in one of the exercise interventions developed and delivered by the providers. Results The perceptions of participants and providers were often disparate but revolved around the same themes especially at the intrapersonal and interpersonal levels. They expressed contrasting views regarding the importance of skill development and enjoyment, and the role of boys and instructors. At the organisational level, both participants and providers agreed that schools offer opportunities as well as barriers to engagement in physical activity and exercise. At the environmental level, urbanisation, safety, culture, and social media appeared as main themes where the perspectives of participants and providers complemented each other. Finally, at the policy level the main themes were derived from providers and concerned issues around programme funding. Participants provided valuable commentary about a nationwide campaign to promote physical activity to females. Conclusions In order to provide engaging physical activity and exercise for young women and girls it is necessary to align the needs and expectations of participants and providers at the intrapersonal and interpersonal levels. For sustainable exercise provision that impacts young women and girls, it is essential to align funding strategies and deliverables between exercise providers, local and national stakeholders.

The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of predictability on dual-task performance in a continuous tracking task. Participants practiced either informed (explicit group) or uninformed (implicit group) about a repeated segment in the curves they had to track. In Experiment 1 participants practices the tracking task only, dual-task performance was assessed after by combining the tracking task with an auditory reaction time task. Results showed both groups learned equally well and tracking performance on a predictable segment in the dual-task condition was better than on random segments. However, reaction times did not benefit from a predictable tracking segment. To investigate the effect of learning under dual-task situation participants in Experiment 2 practiced the tracking task while simultaneously performing the auditory reaction time task. No learning of the repeated segment could be demonstrated for either group during the training blocks, in contrast to the test-block and retention test, where participants performed better on the repeated segment in both dual-task and single-task conditions. Only the explicit group improved from test-block to retention test. As in Experiment 1, reaction times while tracking a predictable segment were no better than reaction times while tracking a random segment. We concluded that predictability has a positive effect only on the predictable task itself possibly because of a task-shielding mechanism. For dual-task training there seems to be an initial negative effect of explicit instructions, possibly because of fatigue, but the advantage of explicit instructions was demonstrated in a retention test. This might be due to the explicit memory system informing or aiding the implicit memory system.

Different professional domains require high levels of physical performance alongside fast and accurate decision-making. Construction workers, police officers, firefighters, elite sports men and women, the military and emergency medical professionals are often exposed to hostile environments with limited options for behavioral coping strategies. In this (mini) review we use football refereeing as an example to discuss the combined effect of intense physical activity and extreme temperatures on decision-making and suggest an explicative model. In professional football competitions can be played in temperatures ranging from -5°C in Norway to 30°C in Spain for example. Despite these conditions, the referee’s responsibility is to consistently apply the laws fairly and uniformly, and to ensure the rules are followed without waning or adversely influencing the competitiveness of the play. However, strenuous exercise in extreme environments imposes increased physiological and psychological stress that can affect decision-making. Therefore, the physical exertion required to follow the game and the thermal strain from the extreme temperatures may hinder the ability of referees to make fast and accurate decisions. Here, we review literature on the physical and cognitive requirements of football refereeing and how extreme temperatures may affect referees’ decisions. Research suggests that both hot and cold environments have a negative impact on decision-making but data specific to decision-making is still lacking. A theoretical model of decision-making under the constraint of intense physical activity and thermal stress is suggested. Future naturalistic studies are needed to validate this model and provide clear recommendations for mitigating strategies.

Skilled actions are the result of a perceptual-motor system being well-calibrated to the appropriate information variables. Changes to the perceptual or motor system initiates recalibration, which is the rescaling of the perceptual-motor system to informational variables. For example, a professional baseball player may need to rescale their throws due to fatigue. The aim of this systematic review is to analyse how recalibration can and has been measured and also to evaluate the literature on recalibration. Five databases were systematically screened to identify literature that reported experiments where a disturbance was applied to the perceptual-motor system in functional perceptual-motor tasks. Each of the 91 experiments reported the immediate effects of a disturbance and/or the effects of removing that disturbance after recalibration. The results showed that experiments applied disturbances to either perception or action, and used either direct or indirect measures of recalibration. In contrast with previous conclusions, active exploration was only sufficient for fast recalibration when the relevant information source was available. Further research into recalibration mechanisms should include the study of information sources as well as skill expertise.

Early deafness results in crossmodal reorganization of the superior temporal cortex (STC). Here, we investigated the effect of deafness on cognitive processing. Specifically, we studied the reorganization, due to deafness and sign language (SL) knowledge, of linguistic and nonlinguistic visual working memory (WM). We conducted an fMRI experiment in groups that differed in their hearing status and SL knowledge: deaf native signers, and hearing native signers, hearing nonsigners. Participants performed a 2-back WM task and a control task. Stimuli were signs from British Sign Language (BSL) or moving nonsense objects in the form of point-light displays. We found characteristic WM activations in fronto-parietal regions in all groups. However, deaf participants also recruited bilateral posterior STC during the WM task, independently of the linguistic content of the stimuli, and showed less activation in fronto-parietal regions. Resting-state connectivity analysis showed increased connectivity between frontal regions and STC in deaf compared to hearing individuals. WM for signs did not elicit differential activations, suggesting that SL WM does not rely on modality-specific linguistic processing. These findings suggest that WM networks are reorganized due to early deafness, and that the organization of cognitive networks is shaped by the nature of the sensory inputs available during development.

Visually guided tracking paradigms can provide insight into the adaptability of motor control strategies. We argue that the question of whether a sensorimotor process, or its absence, is beneficial or detrimental for performance is one that needs to be answered relative to the sensory cues available in the environment and the given task constraints. In this paper, we describe how and when environmental cues have task-dependent benefits. We used a new pursuit-tracking paradigm and added, removed, or replaced cues within the same tracking task in either predictable or unpredictable environments to investigate the use and adaptability of different control strategies. Participants were invited to perform a tracking task over six blocks in six different conditions. Compared to a condition where both target and control cursor (cues) were visible, performance was maintained when a cue was added and decreased when a cue was removed. Our results show that participants only learned to use new cues if the old one was removed and the replacement was valid. This means that the sensorimotor system adapts only if forced to do so instead of constantly exploiting optimization strategies.

Performance decrements in multitasking have been explained by limitations in cognitive capacity, either modelled as static structural bottlenecks or as the scarcity of overall cognitive resources that prevent humans, or at least restrict them, from processing two tasks at the same time. However, recent research has shown that individual differences, flexible resource allocation, and prioritization of tasks cannot be fully explained by these accounts. We argue that understanding human multitasking as a choice and examining multitasking performance from the perspective of judgment and decision-making (JDM), may complement current dual-task theories. We outline two prominent theories from the area of JDM, namely Simple Heuristics and the Decision Field Theory, and adapt these theories to multitasking research. Here, we explain how computational modelling techniques and decision-making parameters used in JDM may provide a benefit to understanding multitasking costs and argue that these techniques and parameters have the potential to predict multitasking behavior in general, and also individual differences in behavior. Finally, we present the one-reason choice metaphor to explain a flexible use of limited capacity as well as changes in serial and parallel task processing. Based on this newly combined approach, we outline a concrete interdisciplinary future research program that we think will help to further develop multitasking research.

The aim of this study was to investigate multi-task integration in a continuous tracking task. We were particularly interested in how manipulating task structure in a dual-task situation affects learning of a constant segment embedded in a pursuit-tracking task. Importantly, we examined if dual-task effects could be attributed to task integration by varying the structural similarity and difficulty of the primary and secondary tasks. In Experiment 1 participants performed a pursuit tracking task while counting high-pitched tones and ignoring low-pitched tones. The tones were either presented randomly or structurally 250 ms before each tracking turn. Experiment 2 increased the motor load of the secondary tasks by asking participants to tap their feet to the tones. Experiment 3 further increased motor load of the primary task by increasing its speed and having participants tracking with their non-dominant hand. The results show that dual-task interference can be moderated by secondary task conditions that match the structure of the primary task. Therefore our results support proposals of task integration in continuous tracking paradigms. We conclude that multi-tasking is not always detrimental for motor learning but can be facilitated through task-integration.

In this chapter, I will argue that “You must see the basket before your shoot” is bad advice. As with most action-packed sports, this sentence includes a spatial component and a temporal component, and in this chapter, I try to give an honest representation of what is currently known about these components—not very much. Compare the most advanced robot with any human, and it becomes clear that we know very little about the reciprocal bidirectional interaction between perception and action used by animals but not used in robots. The chapter includes details of research on the visual perception of basketball shooting and extends methodological principles and research ideas to other fields of perception–action.

Objectives The purpose of this study was to investigate the decision made by the attacker to drive to the left or right of the defender. Method Participants were 32 novice and intermediate basketball players who were assigned the role of attacker or defender in a one-on-one subphase. We manipulated the defender’s posture and measured both the postures of defenders and attackers and the ensuing decision on drive direction. Results As hypothesized, the posture of defenders guided the decision behavior of the attacker. Both novice and intermediate attackers made the same affordance-based decision by driving to the side of the defender’s most advanced foot, but only when the distance between attacker and defender was small. Moreover, novice attackers conveyed postural information regarding their upcoming drive direction while intermediate attackers were better able to conceal this information. Conclusions These results lend further support to the notion of information-based control of interpersonal actions in sport contexts.

(2008). Gaze Behavior in Basketball Shooting. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport: Vol. 79, No. 3, pp. 399-404.

In this study we examined the timing of optical information pick-up in basketball jump shooting using an intermittent viewing technique. We expected shooters to prefer to look at the basket as late as possible under the shooting style used. Seven experts with a high shooting style and five experts with a low shooting style took 50 jump shots while wearing liquid-crystal glasses that opened and closed at pre-set intervals. In principle, under this constraint, the participants could control when they saw the basket by actively modulating the timing of their movements. Analyses of the phasing of the movements relative to the events defined on the glasses revealed that low-style shooters preferred to see the basket just before the ball passed their line of sight, whereas high-style shooters tended to view the basket from underneath the ball after it passed their line of sight. Thus, most shooters preferred to pick up optical information as late as possible given the adopted shooting style. We conclude that, in dynamic far aiming tasks such as basketball jump shooting, late pick-up of optical information is critical for the successful guidance of movements.

Part 1: Fundamental Issues; International audience; Virtual environments are an increasing trend in today’s society. In this scope, the avatar is the representation of the user in the virtual world. However, that relationship lacks empirical studies regarding the nature of the interaction between avatars and human beings. For that purpose it was studied how the avatar’s modeled morphology and dynamics affect its control by the user. An experiment was conducted to measure telepresence and ownership on participants who used a Kinect Natural User Interface (NUI). The body ownership of different avatars was assessed through a behavioral parameter, based on the concept of affordances, and a questionnaire of presence. The results show that the feelings of telepresence and ownership seem to be greater when the kinematics and the avatar’s proportions are closer to those of the user.

In this study we assess for the first time the driving skills of young adults with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). We use a virtual city and a driving simulator to examine steering control, speed regulation and the responses to pedestrians on the road. Participants were adolescents and young adults who had been diagnosed with the disorder as children. For most participants the symptoms were maintained (DCD group) but for others they had largely dissipated (AD group). We also invited typically developing (control) participants matched in age, gender, and driving experience to the DCD and AD participants. Compared to their matched controls, the DCD group showed difficulties in steering when turning bends but not when driving along straight roads. Although the average speed of the DCD group was similar to their controls this may have been too fast for them to steer effectively around the bends. The DCD group also took 50% more time to react to pedestrians who walked towards their path. We found no such differences between the AD and their matched controls. We discuss the results in terms of visual information processing and suggest further applied and fundamental research on this topic.

We examined the hypothesis that developmental coordination disorder (DCD) consists of a poor integration of distal preparatory visual information with the visual information that arises during movement execution. We set up a steering task where the action goal was to steer smoothly on a virtual winding course under conditions that manipulated the availability and timing of visual information. Participants were 20 young adults who had been diagnosed with DCD in their childhood and 20 typically developing age-matched controls. On a simple tracking task, participants with DCD were slower and more variable than controls. The group differences dissipated, however, when the display highlighted the directional changes necessary within the next 500 ms. When the latter condition was modified to also include the full layout of the course, however, the performance of the DCD group once again decreased. This result could not be attributed to a simple distraction effect. The results suggest that distinct neural mechanisms are associated with the processing of fast visual information for online control and longer-term action preparation based on spatial layout. In skilled action, cerebellar and parietal areas process information effectively and their outputs are integrated into one smooth movement. Because the DCD group showed difficulties in steering when both types of information were present, it is likely that this integration is suboptimal.

In two experiments, we used an automatic car simulator to examine the steering control, speed regulation and response to hazards of young adults with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and limited driving experience. In Experiment 1 participants either used the accelerator pedal to regulate their speed, or used the brake pedal when they needed to slow down from a pre-set speed. In Experiment 2, we introduced an auditory distraction condition that shared similarities with maintaining a conversation. Overall, the DCD group produced a larger variance in heading and needed more steering adjustments on straight roads, compared to age-matched controls. When turning bends, the DCD group showed greater difficulty in controlling steering while regulating their speed with the accelerator pedal but this was less problematic when using the brake. The DCD group also responded slower than the control group to pedestrians who walked towards their path. The auditory distraction in Experiment 2 had no visible effects on steering control but increased the reaction times to pedestrians in both groups. We discuss the results in terms of the visuomotor control in steering and the learning of optimal mappings between optic flow and vehicle control.

This chapter examines the question of how people perceive and generate options. Although most current theoretical approaches explain option perception and option generation as requiring extensive and costly cognitive processes, we will argue that people perceive their possibilities for action and generate options without such elaborate means. Borrowing from the contributions of direct perception and bounded rationality, we present and analyze data from three sports tasks: the basketball jump shot, ball allocation in handball, and trampoline somersaulting. Data from kinematics, eye-tracking, and choice behavior experiments are presented and reanalyzed to draw the parallels and distinctions between the two approaches. In conclusion, integrating research on perception, action, and cognition provides a promising description of the bidirectional link between mind and motion.

In different scientific disciplines, decision making is studied by examining how options are perceived or generated in isolated situations. In this chapter we explore the benefits of an interdisciplinary approach to understanding option perception within human behavior. As a consequence of the contributions from different disciplines, we present a framework that describes the bidirectional links between decision making, perception, and action. We will argue that, given their interdependency, the study of decision making profits greatly from a more integrated view of the situations it studies. The framework also illustrates how constraints may influence these bidirectional links. Finally, we use this framework to convey new ideas for experimental paradigms, data interpretation, and applications.

This chapter examines the question of how people perceive and generate options. Although most current theoretical approaches explain option perception and option generation as requiring extensive and costly cognitive processes, we will argue that people perceive their possibilities for action and generate options without such elaborate means. Borrowing from the contributions of direct perception and bounded rationality, we present and analyze data from three sports tasks: the basketball jump shot, ball allocation in handball, and trampoline somersaulting. Data from kinematics, eye-tracking, and choice behavior experiments are presented and reanalyzed to draw the parallels and distinctions between the two approaches. In conclusion, integrating research on perception, action, and cognition provides a promising description of the bidirectional link between mind and motion.

For successful basketball shooting, players must use information about the location of the basket relative to themselves. In this study, the authors examined to what extent shooting performance depends on the absolute distance to the basket (m) and the angle of elevation (α). In Experiment 1, expert players took jump shots under different visual conditions (light, one dot glowing on the rim in the dark, and dark). Task performance was satisfactory under the one-dot condition, suggesting that m and α provided sufficient information during movement execution. In Experiment 2, expert wheelchair basketball players performed shots binocularly and monocularly, under one-dot and light conditions. Performance under the one-dot condition was similar binocularly and monocularly, suggesting that distance information was not crucial for the online control of shooting. In Experiment 3, experts took jump shots under light, one-dot, and dark conditions while the basket's height was varied between trials unbeknownst to the participants. Players relied on α in combination with the official basket's height to guide their shooting actions. In conclusion, basketball shooting appears to be based predominantly on angle of elevation information. © 2009 American Psychological Association.