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Water security in ornamental plant production systems is vital for maintaining profitability. Expensive, complicated, or potentially dangerous treatment systems, together with skilled labor, is often necessary to ensure water quality and plant health. Two contrasting commercial ornamental crop production systems in a mesic region are compared, providing insight into the various strategies employed using irrigation-water containment and treatment systems. The first is a greenhouse/outdoor container operation which grows annual ornamental plants throughout the year using irrigation booms, drip emitters, and/or ebb and flow systems depending on the crop, container size, and/or stage of growth. The operation contains and recycles 50–75% of applied water through a system of underground cisterns, using a recycling reservoir and a newly constructed 0.25 ha slow-sand filtration (SSF) unit. Groundwater provides additional water when needed. Water quantity is not a problem in this operation, but disease and water quality issues, including agrochemicals, are of potential concern. The second is a perennial-plant nursery which propagates cuttings and produces field-grown trees and containerized plants. It has a series of containment/recycling reservoirs that capture rainwater and irrigation return water, together with wells of limited output. Water quantity is a more important issue for this nursery, but poor water quality has had some negative economic effects. Irrigation return water is filtered and sanitized with chlorine gas before being applied to plants via overhead and micro-irrigation systems. The agrochemical paclobutrazol was monitored for one year in the first operation and plant pathogens were qualified and quantified over two seasons for both production systems. The two operations employ very different water treatment systems based on their access to water, growing methods, land topography, and capital investment. Each operation has experienced different water quant

Nine runoff containment basins (RCBs), used directly or indirectly for irrigating plants in ornamental plant nurseries, and one adjacent stream were sampled for water quality between Feb. and July 2013 in Maryland (MD), Mississippi (MS), and Virginia (VA). Triplicate water samples were taken monthly. Analysis was done for 18 water quality variables including nitrate-nitrogen (NO3- L-N) and ammonium-nitrogen (NH4+-N), orthophosphate-phosphorus (PO4-P) and total-phosphorus (T-P), potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, aluminum, boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese, zinc (Zn), pH, total alkalinity (T-Alk), electrical conductivity (EC), and sodium. Additionally, 15 RCBs from 10 nurseries in Alabama (AL), Louisiana (LA), and MS were sampled in 2014 and 2016. Most prevalent correlations (P = 0.01) were between macronutrients, EC, B, Fe, and Zn, but none were prevalent across a majority of RCBs. Water quality parameter values were mostly present at low to preferred levels in all 25 waterways. Macronutrient levels were highest for a RCB that receives fertility from fertigation derived runoff. Water pH ranged from acidic to alkaline (> 8). Results of this study show water quality in RCBs can be suitable for promoting plant health in ornamental plant nurseries, but also shows levels will vary between individual RCBs, therefore demonstrates need to verify water quality from individual water sources.

Nine runoff containment basins (RCBs), used directly or indirectly for irrigating plants in ornamental plant nurseries, and one adjacent stream were sampled for water quality between Feb. and July 2013 in Maryland (MD), Mississippi (MS), and Virginia (VA). Triplicate water samples were taken monthly. Analysis was done for 18 water quality variables including nitrate-nitrogen (NO3- L-N) and ammonium-nitrogen (NH4+-N), orthophosphate-phosphorus (PO4-P) and total-phosphorus (T-P), potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, aluminum, boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese, zinc (Zn), pH, total alkalinity (T-Alk), electrical conductivity (EC), and sodium. Additionally, 15 RCBs from 10 nurseries in Alabama (AL), Louisiana (LA), and MS were sampled in 2014 and 2016. Most prevalent correlations (P = 0.01) were between macronutrients, EC, B, Fe, and Zn, but none were prevalent across a majority of RCBs. Water quality parameter values were mostly present at low to preferred levels in all 25 waterways. Macronutrient levels were highest for a RCB that receives fertility from fertigation derived runoff. Water pH ranged from acidic to alkaline (> 8). Results of this study show water quality in RCBs can be suitable for promoting plant health in ornamental plant nurseries, but also shows levels will vary between individual RCBs, therefore demonstrates need to verify water quality from individual water sources.

Recycling irrigation reservoirs (RIRs) are an emerging aquatic ecosystem and water resource of global significance. This study investigated the vertical distribution of water temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), and pH in eight RIRs at two nurseries each in Virginia and Maryland from 2011 to 2014. Monomictic thermal stratification was observed from April to October in all RIRs, despite their shallow depths (0.75-3.89 m). The strongest stratification had a top-bottom temperature difference of 21.53°C. The top-bottom temperature difference was positively correlated with water column depth, air temperature, and daily light integral (p < 0.05). Wind speed did not impact the thermal stratification, likely due to their relatively small surface areas. Thermal stratification affected the vertical distribution of DO and pH. The top-bottom differences in DO and pH were greater during stratification periods than nonstratification periods. Water pH in all RIRs was higher at the top than at the bottom with the greatest difference of 4.16 units. Discovery and characterization of thermal stratification in RIRs helps understand water quality dynamics in this novel ecosystem and promote safe and productive water reuse for irrigation. Specifically, water withdrawal depths should be adjusted according to variations in temperature, DO, and pH during the stratification and nonstratification periods to mitigate pathogen risk and improve water treatment efficacy and crop production.

Recycling irrigation reservoirs (RIRs) are an emerging aquatic ecosystem and water resource of global significance. This study investigated the vertical distribution of water temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), and pH in eight RIRs at two nurseries each in Virginia and Maryland from 2011 to 2014. Monomictic thermal stratification was observed from April to October in all RIRs, despite their shallow depths (0.75-3.89 m). The strongest stratification had a top-bottom temperature difference of 21.53°C. The top-bottom temperature difference was positively correlated with water column depth, air temperature, and daily light integral (p < 0.05). Wind speed did not impact the thermal stratification, likely due to their relatively small surface areas. Thermal stratification affected the vertical distribution of DO and pH. The top-bottom differences in DO and pH were greater during stratification periods than nonstratification periods. Water pH in all RIRs was higher at the top than at the bottom with the greatest difference of 4.16 units. Discovery and characterization of thermal stratification in RIRs helps understand water quality dynamics in this novel ecosystem and promote safe and productive water reuse for irrigation. Specifically, water withdrawal depths should be adjusted according to variations in temperature, DO, and pH during the stratification and nonstratification periods to mitigate pathogen risk and improve water treatment efficacy and crop production.

Recycling irrigation reservoirs (RIRs) are an emerging aquatic ecosystem of critical importance, for conserving and protecting increasingly scarce water resources. Here, we compare water quality between runoff entrance and middle of four RIRs in nurseries in Virginia (VA) and Maryland (MD). Surface water temperature (T) and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) were lower in the middle than at the entrance, while the trend was opposite for dissolved oxygen (DO), pH and chlorophyll a (Chla). The magnitude of these differences between the entrance and middle decreased with increasing depth. These differences were magnified by water stratification from April to October. Minimum differences were observed for electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and turbidity (TUR). Cluster analyses were performed on water quality difference data to evaluate whether the differences vary with respect to reservoirs. Two clusters were formed with one consisting primarily of VA reservoirs, and the other consisting mostly of MD reservoirs in both years. Water quality in the middle and at the entrance of RIRs was expected to vary greatly because of runoff inflow. The two-point water quality differences observed here, although statistically significant, are not large enough to cause significant impact on crop health and productivity for most water quality parameters except pH. Additional analysis of outlet data shows that the range and magnitude of water quality difference between the middle and the outlet are comparable to those between the middle and entrance of RIRs. These results indicate that monitoring at a single point is sufficient to obtain reliable water quality estimates for most water quality parameters in RIRs except pH. This is important when considering the cost of labor and equipment necessary for documenting water quality in agricultural production systems. However, additional pH measurements are still necessary to make practical water quality

Recycling irrigation reservoirs (RIRs) are an emerging aquatic ecosystem of critical importance, for conserving and protecting increasingly scarce water resources. Here, we compare water quality between runoff entrance and middle of four RIRs in nurseries in Virginia (VA) and Maryland (MD). Surface water temperature (T) and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) were lower in the middle than at the entrance, while the trend was opposite for dissolved oxygen (DO), pH and chlorophyll a (Chla). The magnitude of these differences between the entrance and middle decreased with increasing depth. These differences were magnified by water stratification from April to October. Minimum differences were observed for electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and turbidity (TUR). Cluster analyses were performed on water quality difference data to evaluate whether the differences vary with respect to reservoirs. Two clusters were formed with one consisting primarily of VA reservoirs, and the other consisting mostly of MD reservoirs in both years. Water quality in the middle and at the entrance of RIRs was expected to vary greatly because of runoff inflow. The two-point water quality differences observed here, although statistically significant, are not large enough to cause significant impact on crop health and productivity for most water quality parameters except pH. Additional analysis of outlet data shows that the range and magnitude of water quality difference between the middle and the outlet are comparable to those between the middle and entrance of RIRs. These results indicate that monitoring at a single point is sufficient to obtain reliable water quality estimates for most water quality parameters in RIRs except pH. This is important when considering the cost of labor and equipment necessary for documenting water quality in agricultural production systems. However, additional pH measurements are still necessary to make practical water quality

These datasets contain water quality data measured at different depths and different locations within each recycling irrigation reservoir studied. These water quality parameters include temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, chlorophyll a, oxidation-reduction potential, electrical conductivity, salinity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity.

These datasets contain water quality data measured at different depths and different locations within each recycling irrigation reservoir studied. These water quality parameters include temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, chlorophyll a, oxidation-reduction potential, electrical conductivity, salinity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity. To investigate water quality, monthly field measurements were taken at the center of each reservoir between 12:00 and 16:00 from April 2011 to March 2014. Nine water quality parameters were measured at 0.5-m intervals from surface to bottom of water columns using a 6600V2-4 Multiprobe (YSI Inc., OH, USA). These parameters included temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, chlorophyll a, oxidation-reduction potential, electrical conductivity, salinity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity.

Water quality remains a predominant issue within the Chesapeake Bay watershed, and nutrient loading continues to undermine the progressive recovery of this ecosystem. Until recently, the ornamental plant industry has had little information to develop better management practices to increase the efficiency of water and nutrient applications. This research used an integrated approach to examine container- production systems, to develop recommendations to increase nutrient uptake efficiency and reduce runoff. A 40-month field study examined the effects of various cultural practices on irrigation and nutrient uptake efficiencies. Under cyclic scheduling, drip irrigation applied 3 to 4.5 times less water than overhead irrigation and had significantly less runoff when plants were spaced at low densities. While drip irrigation is significantly more efficient, overhead irrigation is more practical and economically feasible for most small container-nursery stock. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) was examined as an alternative to cyclic scheduling and when used with overhead irrigation, water applications were half that of cyclic irrigation scheduling. . This research simultaneously documented nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) dynamics by examining nutrient applications, uptake and leaching over the forty months. In most cases, N and P uptake efficiency and runoff was negatively affected by overhead irrigation, particularly when soluble nutrients were applied via fertigation and at low plant densities. Nitrogen and P efficiencies ranged between 10 and 30% and were dependent upon methods of irrigation and fertilization, plant density and water use. The use of both drip and TDR-scheduled overhead irrigation reduced nutrient runoff to half that of the overhead irrigation program Intensive spring nutrient uptake studies showed that N influences the total growth of Rhododendron (azalea) and P uptake is a function of P fertilization rate and growth, influenced by N rate. Moderate N rat