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[Motivation] Trait variation within species can reveal plastic and/or genetic responses to environmental gradients, and may indicate where local adaptation has occurred. Here, we present a dataset of rangewide variation in leaf traits from seven of the most ecologically and economically important tree species in Europe. Sample collection and trait assessment are embedded in the GenTree project (EU-Horizon 2020), which aims at characterizing the genetic and phenotypic variability of forest tree species to optimize the management and sustainable use of forest genetic resources. Our dataset captures substantial intra- and interspecific leaf phenotypic variability, and provides valuable information for studying the relationship between ecosystem functioning and trait variability of individuals, and the response and resilience of species to environmental changes., [Main types of variable contained] We chose morphological and chemical characters linked to trade-offs between acquisition and conservation of resources and water use, namely specific leaf area, leaf size, carbon and nitrogen content and their ratio, and the isotopic signature of stable isotope 13C and 15N in leaves., [Spatial location and grain] We surveyed between 18 and 22 populations per species, 141 in total, across Europe., [Time period] Leaf sampling took place between 2016 and 2017., [Major taxa and level of measurement] We sampled at least 25 individuals in each population, 3,569 trees in total, and measured traits in 35,755 leaves from seven European tree species, i.e. the conifers Picea abies, Pinus pinaster and Pinus sylvestris, and the broadleaves Betula pendula, Fagus sylvatica, Populus nigra and Quercus petraea., [Software format] The data files are in ASCII text, tab delimited, not compressed., All authors acknowledge support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under grant agreement no. 676876 (Project GenTree). Laboratory work was also supported by other projects: COMEDIAS (CGL2017- 83170-R, Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities), REMEDINAL IV (TE-CM S2018/EMT-4338, Project of the Autonomous Community of Madrid, Spain), SPONFOREST (BIODIVERSA-3, PCIN-2016-055), and International Laboratory of Global Change (LINCGlobal 4540-143AP). The Swiss contribution was supported by the Swiss Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) under contract no. 6.0032. BC was funded by a Scholarship from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES (Brazil).

11 Pág. This article belongs to the Special Issue Population Genetic and Morphological Diversity of Woody Plants), Background: local morphological variation can provide useful information to clarify the role of hybridization in Mediterranean oaks. Accordingly, we have characterized putative hybrids and oak species coexisting in a highly diversified oak forest in Algeria with four native oak species (Quercus suber L., Q. ilex L., Q. canariensis Willd., and Q. afares Pomel). (2) Methods: sixteen plots, including 89 trees from the four native species and their putative hybrids were sampled. Leaves were scanned and their geometric morphometry analyzed by using 11 landmarks on the right side on their abaxial surface. Variation within and among species, and the relationship among oak species and their hybrids were analyzed, utilizing an ANOVA and a canonical analysis using morphoJ software. (3) Results: using the geometric morphometry analysis, we observed that Q. afares shape is intermediate between Q. suber and Q. canariensis, being Q. ilex very different from the others, and that there is no overlap among them. Putative hybrids are morphologically close to Q. afares and, to a lesser extent, to Q. suber and, finally, to Q. ilex and Q. canariensis. (4) Conclusions: the study opens the field for future molecular characterization of hybrids, and for determining their role in terms of adaptation to actual and predicted future climatic conditions. The morphological proximity of hybrids to Q. afares demonstrate this species advantage in the area of study and its importance for the future evolution of the species in the Mediterranean., Amel Akli was financed by a grant (Pne2019/2020) from the Algerian Ministry Higher Education and Scientific Research (MESRS) for co-supervision agreement between the Huelva University (Spain) for PhD studies. Ricardo Alía was funded by the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement (No 773383 (B4EST project), and the Ministry of Science (RTI2018-094691-B-C32).

International audience; The advent of next-generation genome sequencing technologies has allowed approaching the sequencing and analysis of large and complex conifer genomes. Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is an economically and ecologically important conifer species widely distributed in South-West Europe, which shows a significant genetic and adaptive variability. This chapter takes on the task of reviewing the insights into the maritime pine genome sequencing breakthrough and its impact on downstream analysis. Maritime pine genome sequencing and assembly approaches are described along with the impact of related tools. A section of the state-of-the-art research on comparative, functional, structural, and translational genomics aimed at dissecting the genetic basis and the specific regulation of biological processes underlying the expression of traits of interest in maritime pine and other conifers is also described. Perspectives about the impact of these tools as well as additional research approaches are discussed.

21 Pág. Centro de Investigación Forestal (CIFOR), Mediterranean ecosystems are biodiversity hotspots located between temperate mesic climates and semi-deserts and deserts. Mediterranean climates are characterized by a drought season but its length and severity can be highly variable across regions. In this review, we explored population genetic variation in functional traits and fitness in Mediterranean oak and pine species. We tested the hypothesis that increased drought tolerance has evolved as an adaptation to xeric and warm areas of the Mediterranean climate while increased competitive abilities have been favoured in more mesic regions, following a productivity-persistence trade-off within species. We first reviewed the literature and performed a meta-analysis of studies on Pinus sp. and Quercus sp. from Mediterranean climates, and then analysed a set of unpublished data from Spanish common garden experiments of species from the Mediterranean Basin, searching for evidence of trait genetic variation among populations, local adaptation and trait–environment associations. The meta-analysis showed that 82.9% (95% CI 75.7–89.4) of traits per study showed significant population genetic differentiation and that 52.5% (35.6–69.2) of traits in studies with two or more Mediterranean environments exhibited population-by-environment interaction. Population differences in traits related to drought tolerance, cold hardiness and fitness were usually correlated with provenance precipitation and temperature gradients, suggesting that adaptation to different climatic regimes is an important process driving intraspecific genetic divergence. Within the Spanish trial network, however, predicted fitness functions based on climatic transfer distance failed to reveal significantly higher fitness of populations at experimental sites with climates closer to their provenances’ ones. Neither the literature review nor the new analyses of the Spanish trial network provided evidence of a negative association between growth- and persistence-related traits at the intraspecific level. Synthesis. Population genetic differentiation in functional traits and fitness is common in Mediterranean species, driven, at least in part, by the adaptation to contrasting temperature and precipitation regimes. Because of experimental constraints or biological reality, our study failed to detect a trade-off between resource-use strategies within species, calling for future studies to investigate further whether intraspecific evolution of stress tolerance occurs at the expense of growth potential in Mediterranean environments or not., This study was funded by the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 773383 (B4EST project), the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture (AEG-17-048) and the Spanish Ministry of Science (RTI2018-094691-B-C32). We are thankful to Maurizio Marchi (CNR-IBBR, Italy) and the B4EST climate downscaling tool for providing climate data. Most data used in this study are integrated in the Spanish Network of Forest Genetic Trials (GENFORED). We thank Ismael Aranda for suggestions and comments on the advanced versions of the manuscript. We also thank José María García del Barrio and Eduardo Notivol for the map. Finally, we thank all persons and institutions involved in establishing and measuring field trials and maintaining the network

Sustainable use of forest genetic resources in Mediterranean pines should consider different aspects such as the conservation of genetic resources, the actions derived from the breeding programs, and the transfer and use of forest reproductive material (FRM) in forestry. These three aspects should all be integrated into forest management at different spatial scales (from stand, to landscape to the entire species distribution range), and should also be integrated into different national and regional policies (biodiversity conservation, reforestation, national forest inventories, research), which should be based on the most precise information available to enable decision making. This chapter reviews the state of the art of the conservation and improvement of genetic resources in Mediterranean pines. Firstly, we analyze the different evolutionary factors affecting the conservation of genetic resources in Mediterranean pines, the threats to these genetic resources and the strategies and actions implemented for their conservation. We stress the lack of a general framework for the conservation of genetic resources, due to some limiting factors derived both from socio-economic differences of the countries, and from differences in the actual knowledge on the genetic resources of the different species. In the second step, we review the breeding activities for Mediterranean pines, their strategies and main achievements. Most of these activities are of low intensity, and should take advantage of breeding without breeding approaches to be cost-effective. We then analyze some aspects related to the transfer and use of FRM in these species, the basis for decision making and the implications for sustainable conservation and use of forest genetic resources.

Producción Científica, Research Highlights: We experimentally tested different seed sourcing strategies (local, predictive, climate-predictive, climate-adjusted, composite and admixture) under a climate change high emissions scenario using a Scots pine multi-site provenance test. Background and Objectives: There is an urgent need to conserve genetic resources and to support resilience of conifer species facing expected changes and threats. Seed sourcing strategies have been proposed to maximize the future adaptation and resilience of our forests. However, these proposals are yet to be tested, especially in long-lived organisms as forest trees, due to methodological constraints. In addition, some methods rely on the transfer of material from populations matching the future conditions of the sites. However, at the rear edge of the species, some specific problems (high fragmentation, high genetic differentiation, role of genetic drift) challenge the theoretical expectations of some of these methods. Materials and Methods: We used a Scots pine multi-site provenance test, consisting of seventeen provenances covering the distribution range of the species in Spain tested in five representative sites. We measured height, diameter and survival at 5, 10 and 15 years after planting. We simulated populations of 50 trees by bootstrapping material of the provenance test after removing the intra-site environmental effects, simulating different seed sourcing strategies. Results: We found that local and predictive methods behaved better than methods based on the selection of future climate-matching strategies (predictive-climate and climate-adjusted) and those combining several seed sources (composite and admixture seed sourcing strategies). Conclusions: Despite the theoretical expectations, for Scots pine, a forest tree species at its rear edge of its distribution, seed-sourcing methods based on climate matching or a combination of seed sources do not perform better than traditional local or predictive methods or they are not feasible because of the lack of future climate-matching populations., Fondo Europeo Agrícola de Desarrollo Rural - (Project AEG 17-048), European Union’s Horizon 2020 (Grant 773383), Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación - (Proyecto RTI2018-094691-B-C32)

24 Pág., Intra-annual wood density fluctuations are valuable indicators of the role of the local climate and provenance origins on tree growth. These intra-ring wood features were the most informative about local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity ofPinus halepensisMill. in a provenance trial. This highlights the importance of taking provenance into account when selecting forest reproductive material to mitigate the effects of climate change. Context: It is essential to disentangle the influence of climate from the effect of provenance on inter- and intra-annual wood traits to identify populations’ responses to climate changes. This will be even more relevant in the drought-prone Mediterranean region, where species have high genetic differentiation among populations. Aims: We investigated the effects of provenance and climate driving Pinus halepensis Mill. wood traits, as imprinted phenotypic adaptations to the Mediterranean climate. Methods: Inter- and intra-annual wood trait variation (ring-, early-, and latewood width, wood density) was studied by microdensitometry in 8 provenances from Spain, France, Greece, and Italy in a common-garden experiment. We related wood traits and density fluctuations with inter-annual climate variations at the trial site and the provenance origin. Results: Provenances showed distinct responses to climate regarding tree growth, wood density, and intra-annual fluctuations. Density fluctuations in latewood were more frequent than in earlywood. Climate at the provenance origin was a more important force for density fluctuations than climatic variations at the planting site, with different trends between coastal and inland provenances, and higher frequency of latewood fluctuations in provenances from arid and semiarid sites. Conclusion: Differences in P. halepensis wood density fluctuations confirmed the imprinted origin provenance control in response to climate variations and indicated a relation with local adaptation of these xylem anatomical features. Moreover, the position of these fluctuations in rings reflected the high plasticity of P. halepensis to cope with high intra-seasonal variability of climatic conditions. This underlines the importance of considering tree-ring features for the selection of provenances in reforestation material for conservation and silvicultural programs., AH is supported by PinCaR project (UHU-1266324, FEDER Funds, Andalusia Regional Government, Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad 2014–2020); JV (SFRH/BPD/105656/2015) and FC (SFRH/ BPD/111307/2015) were supported by postdoctoral research grants from FCT with funds from POPH (Portuguese Operational Human Potential Program), QREN Portugal (Portuguese National Strategic Reference Framework), and FSE (European Social Fund). RSS was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness by the postdoctoral grant (IJCI-2015-25845, MCIU funds), CoMo-ReAdapt (CGL2013-48843-C2-1-R) project, RTI2018-096884-B-C31 and RTI2018-096884-B-C33 projects (Ministry of Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, Spain), and VULBOS project (UPO-1263216, FEDER Funds, Andalusia Regional Government, Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad 2014–2020).

International audience; Phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation are the two main processes underlying trait variability. Under rapid environmental change, phenotypic plasticity, if adaptive, could increase the odds for organisms to persist. However, little is known on how environmental variation has shaped plasticity across species ranges over time. Here, we assess whether the portion of phenotypic variation of tree populations linked to the environment is related to the interannual climate variability of the last century and how it varies among populations across species ranges and age. To this aim, we used 372,647 individual tree height measurements of three pine species found in low elevation forests in Europe: Pinus nigra Arnold, P. pinaster Aiton and P. pinea L Measurements were taken in a network of 38 common gardens established in Europe and North Africa with 315 populations covering the distribution range of the species. We fitted linear mixed-effect models of tree height as a function of age, population, climate and competition effects. Models allowed us to estimate tree height response curves at the population level and indexes of populations' phenotypic variation, as a proxy of phenotypic plasticity, at 4,8 and 16 years old, and relate these indexes to the interannual climate variability of the last century. We found that phenotypic variation in tree height was higher in young trees than in older ones. We also found that P pinea showed the highest phenotypic variation in tree height compared with P pinasfer anti P nigra. Finally, phenotypic variation in tree height may be partly adaptive, and differently across species, as climate variability during the last century at the origin of the populations explained between 51 and 69% of the current phenotypic variation of P. nigra and P. pinea, almost twice of the levels of P. pinaster. Main conclusions: Populations' phenotypic variation in tree height is largely explained by the climate variability that the populations experienced during the last century, which we attribute to the genetic diversity among populations.

The dataset presented here was collected by the GenTree project (EU-Horizon 2020), which aims to improve the use of forest genetic resources across Europe by better understanding how trees adapt to their local environment. This dataset of individual tree-core characteristics including ring-width series and whole-core wood density was collected for seven ecologically and economically important European tree species: silver birch (Betula pendula), European beech (Fagus sylvatica), Norway spruce (Picea abies), European black poplar (Populus nigra), maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and sessile oak (Quercus petraea). Tree-ring width measurements were obtained from 3600 trees in 142 populations and whole-core wood density was measured for 3098 trees in 125 populations. This dataset covers most of the geographical and climatic range occupied by the selected species. The potential use of it will be highly valuable for assessing ecological and evolutionary responses to environmental conditions as well as for model development and parameterization, to predict adaptability under climate change scenarios., Measurement(s)growth ring • wood densityTechnology Type(s)measuring table • calculationFactor Type(s)tree speciesSample Characteristic - OrganismBetula pendula • Fagus sylvatica • Picea abies • Populus nigra • Pinus pinaster • Pinus sylvestris • Quercus petraeaSample Characteristic - LocationEurope Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.11294993

17 Pág., A decade of genetic association studies in multiple organisms suggests that most complex traits are polygenic; that is, they have a genetic architecture determined by numerous loci, each with small effect-size. Thus, determining the degree of polygenicity and its variation across traits, environments and time is crucial to understand the genetic basis of phenotypic variation. We applied multilocus approaches to estimate the degree of polygenicity of fitness-related traits in a long-lived plant (Pinus pinaster Ait., maritime pine) and to analyse this variation across environments and years. We evaluated five categories of fitness-related traits (survival, height, phenology, functional, and biotic-stress response) in a clonal common-garden network planted in contrasted environments (over 20,500 trees). Most of the analysed traits showed evidence of local adaptation based on Qst -Fst comparisons. We further observed a remarkably stable degree of polygenicity, averaging 6% (range of 0%-27%), across traits, environments and years. We detected evidence of negative selection, which could explain, at least partially, the high degree of polygenicity. Because polygenic adaptation can occur rapidly, our results suggest that current predictions on the capacity of natural forest tree populations to adapt to new environments should be revised, especially in the current context of climate change., This study was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through projects RTA2010-00120-C02- 02 (CLONAPIN), CGL2011-30182- C02- 01 (AdapCon) and AGL2012-40151- C03- 02 (FENOPIN). The study was also supported by the “Initiative d’Excellence (IdEx) de l’Université de Bordeaux - Chaires d'installation 2015” (EcoGenPin) and the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 773383 (B4EST)

The dataset presented here was collected by the GenTree project (EU-Horizon 2020), which aims to improve the use of forest genetic resources across Europe by better understanding how trees adapt to their local environment. This dataset of individual tree-core characteristics including ring-width series and whole-core wood density was collected for seven ecologically and economically important European tree species: silver birch (Betula pendula), European beech (Fagus sylvatica), Norway spruce (Picea abies), European black poplar (Populus nigra), maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and sessile oak (Quercus petraea). Tree-ring width measurements were obtained from 3600 trees in 142 populations and whole-core wood density was measured for 3098 trees in 125 populations. This dataset covers most of the geographical and climatic range occupied by the selected species. The potential use of it will be highly valuable for assessing ecological and evolutionary responses to environmental conditions as well as for model development and parameterization, to predict adaptability under climate change scenarios. Measurement(s) growth ring • wood density Technology Type(s) measuring table • calculation Factor Type(s) tree species Sample Characteristic - Organism Betula pendula • Fagus sylvatica • Picea abies • Populus nigra • Pinus pinaster • Pinus sylvestris • Quercus petraea Sample Characteristic - Location Europe Published

Wood density is one of the most important physical properties of the wood, used in improvement programs for wood quality of major timber species. Traditional core sampling of standing trees has been widely used to assess wood density profiles at high spatial resolution by X-ray microdensitometry methods, but alternative methods to predict wood properties quality are also needed. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, a non-destructive technique, is being increasingly used for wood property assessment and has already been demonstrated to be able to predict wood density. However, the estimation of wood density profiles by NIR has not yet been extensively studied, and improved models using spectra information (NIR) and X-ray data need to be developed. To this end, partial least square regression (PLS-R) models for predicting wood density were developed at a 1.4 mm spatial resolution on Pinus pinaster wood cores, with an improved spatial synchronization along the tangential and radial directions of the strip, between X-ray data and NIR spectra. The validation of the best model showed a high coefficient of determination (0.95), low error (0.026) and no outlier. Compression wood samples were not detected as outliers and were correctly predicted by the model. However, pith spectra were detected as outliers and its predicted values were overestimated by 33% due to unusual spectra suggesting a diverse chemical composition. The results suggest that NIR-PLS models obtained can be used for screening maritime pine wood density profiles along the radii at 1.4 mm spatial resolution info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Producción Científica, In a less-favored area such as the Sahel, promoting sustainable management, breeding, and conservation of forestry resources would result in improvements for agroforestry systems and food security. A contingent ranking exercise allowed us to estimate the preferences and the values given by the rural population to the attributes that would be comprised in a conservation program. The resulting preferred program is farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) based on the species Adansonia digitata (baobab), with plantation, stone bunds, or tassa, and selected or bred seeds. The proposed actions to improve the tree density and the seed quality were highly valued by the respondents. Nevertheless, no clear differences were found between tassa and stone bunds, or FMNR and plantation. The main effects of the program, according to the surveyed population, include an increase in crop production and soil conservation, and higher income from tree products. This study allowed us to identify the program that would provide the greatest well-being for farmers, since it would allow them to simultaneously improve both the production of their crops and the production of the woody food species. It was shown that farmers were particularly willing to contribute to a program based on baobab, mainly because its products are used for food in the home and can be sold in markets. In this sense, the yield and production of the system would be improved by increasing the number of baobab trees. Farmers would contribute to this production system and would be willing to invest sustainable effort in the long term. The conservation and breeding program can be directed at conserving and propagating the genetic resources of A. digitata in an initial phase, selecting trees with good production, growth, and adaptation characteristics., Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional y Desarrollo (AECID 2014/ACDE/003520)

Since ancient times, Mediterranean pine forests have been habitat for human activity, providing a wide range of goods such as timber, seeds, resin and derived products. Among them, tar and resin have played an historical role on the interaction between human activity and forests. In Spain, the resin played an important role in the economic and social development in rural areas during 20th century. But after 1980, resin production plummeted and the virtual disappearance of resin tapping caused the abandonment of traditional forest activities and the subsequently losses of ecosystem forest services (provision, regulation and cultural). This paper deals with some of the ecosystem services provided by resin tapped pine forests and shows how the abandonment of this traditional forestry activity would lead to a loss of social welfare beyond the economic activity. Among these ecosystem services, special attention is paid to the biodiversity of the pine forests. For that purpose, a stratified vegetation sampling was conducted in the leading resin-tapping Spanish region. Ecological analysis was therefore compared with the social preferences for several attributes associated to resin-tapped pine forests in Spain, including the biodiversity of flora., Financial support from the SUDOE Interreg IV B – UE/EU FEDER/ERDF program (project SUST-FOREST, ref. SOE2/P2/E261) is acknowledged. This paper is also an accidental contribution of M.S. and S.M. to the project StarTree (funded by the European Union through the European Commission's FP7 Cooperation Work Programme).

Range shifts and species range limits are two fundamental, related processes in population and evolutionary genetics that have received much attention since a large impact of climate change in species’ distributions was predicted. In general, there is a broad consensus on the effects of abiotic interactions on range limits, but comprehensive evidence supporting/rejecting the impact of biotic interactions is lacking. Hybridization has long been recognized as a biotic interaction favoring marginal populations establishment and range expansion through transgressive segregation or adaptive introgression, but recently new roles have been claimed for hybridization, such as the trigger of adaptive radiations, or indirect effects on population sizes that would allow persistence until new mutations arises or the environment changes. In this work, we selected two Mediterranean oak species with ecological discrimination based on soil pH, and intensively sampled three interspecific pairs of marginal populations from taxon-extreme environments under heterogeneous climate conditions. We genotyped 110 EST-SSR markers evenly distributed across their genomes and applied a variety of population and landscape genetics models to validate candidate genes for local adaptation. Then, several introgression screens on shared candidates showed that the three inter-specific population pairs contain evidences of adaptive introgression and that events occur in both directions. Other significant findings from our work are: (i) Aproximate Bayesian Computation coupled to coalescent simulations supports small hybridization rates since recent secondary contact in two population pairs affected by Quaternary climatic oscillations but continuous old interspecific gene flow in the pair less affected by climate, (ii) introgression at loci involved in local adaptations leads to strong geographic structure of marginal oak populations when sampling is large enough, and (iii) sampling efforts can be targeted to reveal different components of populations structure. Finally, we review evidences that support our conclusions and discuss some evolutionary implications of adaptive introgression on range expansion.

AimUnder rapid environmental change, phenotypic plasticity, if adaptive, could increase the odds for organisms to persist. Environmental variation over time is an important source of phenotypic plasticity. Likewise, phenotypic plasticity can vary with age in many organisms. However, little is known on phenotypic plasticity variation across species’ ranges. Our aims are: (i) to assess whether populations’ phenotypic plasticity is related to the inter-annual climate variation under which populations have evolved during the last century; (ii) to compare phenotypic plasticity among developmental classes; and (iii) to predict phenotypic plasticity across’ species ranges.LocationEurope and North-Africa.Time period1901-2014.Major taxa studiedPinus nigra, P. pinasterandP. pinea.MethodsWe used 372 646 individual tree height measurements at three developmental classes from a wide network of 38 common gardens in Europe and North Africa with provenances covering the distribution range of the species. With this data, we: i) build linear mixed-effect models of tree height as a function of tree age, population and climate; ii) estimate populations’ reaction norms from the fitted models; iii) calculate populations’ phenotypic plasticity indexes; iv) build models of populations’ phenotypic plasticity indexes as a function of inter-annual climate variation during the last century.ResultsWe found that i) most populations that have evolved under high inter-annual climate variation, in either maximum or minimum values in temperature or precipitation, exhibited high values of plasticity in tree height; ii) phenotypic plasticity for tree height was higher in young trees than in older ones, iii) phenotypic plasticity did not follow any particular geographical pattern across species’ ranges.Main conclusionsPhenotypic plasticity across the three Mediterranean pines’ ranges is related with the climate variation experienced over time and calls into question whether this plasticity could be adaptive and hence beneficial to cope with climate change in the short-term.

The strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources, which are essential for the future adaptation of forest species to changing environments, are also a source of valuable genetic resources for breeding and restoration activities. The first step to define and implement cost-effective strategies is to identify specific priority populations. Mexico, in spite of being characterized by high levels of tree species diversity, mostly lacks a combined strategy for the genetic conservation and use of forest genetic resources. The aims of this work are: (i) to identify areas for gene conservation, and (ii) to propose measures for the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources of four pine species: Pinus greggii Engelm. ex Parl., Pinus oocarpa Schiede ex Schltdl., Pinus patula Schiede ex Schltdl. &amp, Cham. and Pinus pseudostrobus Lindl. To do that, we use the existing information on the distribution, genetic variation and conservation and breeding efforts in Mexico. Overall, 51 areas for establishing genetic conservation units were prioritized and 6 genetic zones for the use of forest genetic resources in breeding and selection of forest reproductive material were identified. The current conservation efforts for the four priority Mexican pines should be improved to satisfy the needs of a national breeding and conservation network.

Forest ecosystems are increasingly challenged by extreme events, e.g. drought, storms, pest and pathogenic fungi outbreaks, causing severe ecological and economical losses. Understanding the genetic basis of adaptive traits in tree species is of key importance to preserve forest ecosystems, as genetic variation in a trait (i.e. heritability) determines its potential for human-mediated or evolutionary change. Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Aiton), a conifer widely distributed in southwestern Europe and northwestern Africa, grows under contrasted environmental conditions promoting local adaptation. Genetic variation at adaptive phenotypes, including height, growth phenology and susceptibility to two fungal pathogens (Diplodia sapinea and Armillaria ostoyae) and an insect pest (Thaumetopoea pityocampa), were assessed in a range-wide clonal common garden of maritime pine. Broad-sense heritability was significant for height (0.219), growth phenology (0.165-0.310) and pathogen susceptibility (necrosis length caused by D. sapinea, 0.152; and by A. ostoyae, 0.021) measured after inoculation under controlled conditions, but not for pine processionary moth incidence in the common garden. The correlations of trait variation among populations revealed contrasting trends for pathogen susceptibility to D. sapinea and A. ostoyae with respect to height. Taller trees showed longer necrosis length caused by D. sapinea while shorter trees were more affected by A. ostoyae. Moreover, maritime pine populations from areas with high summer temperatures and frequent droughts were less susceptible to D. sapinea but more susceptible to A. ostoyae. Finally, an association study using 4,227 genome-wide SNPs revealed several loci significantly associated to each trait (range of 3-26), including a possibly disease-induced translation initiation factor, eIF-5. This study provides important insights to develop genetic conservation and breeding strategies integrating species responses to biotic stressors.

Most populations of Scots pine in Spain are locally adapted to drought, with only a few populations at the southernmost part of the distribution range showing maladaptations to the current climate. Increasing tree heights are predicted for most of the studied populations by the year 2070, under the RCP 8.5 scenario. These results are probably linked to the capacity of this species to acclimatize to new climates. The impact of climate change on tree growth depends on many processes, including the capacity of individuals to respond to changes in the environment. Pines are often locally adapted to their environments, leading to differences among populations. Generally, populations at the margins of the species’ ranges show lower performances in fitness-related traits than core populations. Therefore, under expected changes in climate, populations at the southern part of the species’ ranges could be at a higher risk of maladaptation. Here, we hypothesize that southern Scots pine populations are locally adapted to current climate, and that expected changes in climate may lead to a decrease in tree performance. We used Scots pine tree height growth data from 15-year-old individuals, measured in six common gardens in Spain, where plants from 16 Spanish provenances had been planted. We analyzed tree height growth, accounting for the climate of the planting sites, and the climate of the original population to assess local adaptation, using linear mixed-effect models. We found that: (1) drought drove differences among populations in tree height growth; (2) most populations were locally adapted to drought; (3) tree height was predicted to increase for most of the studied populations by the year 2070 (a concentration of RCP 8.5). Most populations of Scots pine in Spain were locally adapted to drought. This result suggests that marginal populations, despite inhabiting limiting environments, can be adapted to the local current conditions. In addition, the local adaptation and acclimation capacity of populations can help margin populations to keep pace with climate change. Our results highlight the importance of analyzing, case-by-case, populations’ capacities to cope with climate change.

Most populations of Scots pine in Spain are locally adapted to drought, with only a few populations at the southernmost part of the distribution range showing maladaptations to the current climate. Increasing tree heights are predicted for most of the studied populations by the year 2070, under the RCP 8.5 scenario. These results are probably linked to the capacity of this species to acclimatize to new climates. The impact of climate change on tree growth depends on many processes, including the capacity of individuals to respond to changes in the environment. Pines are often locally adapted to their environments, leading to differences among populations. Generally, populations at the margins of the species&rsquo, ranges show lower performances in fitness-related traits than core populations. Therefore, under expected changes in climate, populations at the southern part of the species&rsquo, ranges could be at a higher risk of maladaptation. Here, we hypothesize that southern Scots pine populations are locally adapted to current climate, and that expected changes in climate may lead to a decrease in tree performance. We used Scots pine tree height growth data from 15-year-old individuals, measured in six common gardens in Spain, where plants from 16 Spanish provenances had been planted. We analyzed tree height growth, accounting for the climate of the planting sites, and the climate of the original population to assess local adaptation, using linear mixed-effect models. We found that: (1) drought drove differences among populations in tree height growth, (2) most populations were locally adapted to drought, (3) tree height was predicted to increase for most of the studied populations by the year 2070 (a concentration of RCP 8.5). Most populations of Scots pine in Spain were locally adapted to drought. This result suggests that marginal populations, despite inhabiting limiting environments, can be adapted to the local current conditions. In addition, the local adaptation and acclimation capacity of populations can help margin populations to keep pace with climate change. Our results highlight the importance of analyzing, case-by-case, populations&rsquo, capacities to cope with climate change.

Consumer Preferences for Baobab Products and Implication for Conservation and Improvement Policies of Forest Food Resources in Niger (West Africa).Adansonia digitata L. (African baobab) provides a wide range of market products in Niger. These products are highly important in the traditional dishes and are also a cultural asset for the Nigerien households. The main objective of this study is to assess the local consumers’ preferences for marketed baobab products and to infer key elements in order to design conservation strategies at local and national levels. A total of 432 consumers were surveyed in eight rural and four urban markets in Niger. Results from a contingent valuation application show that 61% of the consumers are willing to pay a mean of 24.7% above the current market prices. These funds would favor the implementation of a conservation and improvement program for assuring the availability of baobab products in the market and conserving the baobab resources. Promoting health and food security based on the development of these products will likely also play a role in favoring the conservation of the species. Preferences des Consommateurs pour les Produits du Baobab et implication pour les Politiques de Conservation et d’Amelioration des Ressources Alimentaires Forestieres au Niger (Afrique de l’Ouest).Adansonia digitata L. (baobab africain) fournit une large gamme de produits du marche au Niger. Ces produits sont tres importants dans les plats traditionnels et constituent egalement un atout culturel pour les menages nigeriens. L’objectif principal de cet article est d’evaluer les preferences des consommateurs locaux pour les produits du baobab commercialises et de deduire des elements cles afin de concevoir des strategies de conservation aux niveaux local et national. Au total, 432 consommateurs ont ete enquetes dans 8 marches ruraux et 4 marches urbains au Niger. Les resultats de l’application de la methode d’evaluation contingente montrent que 61% des consommateurs sont prets a payer 24,7% au-dessus des prix actuels du marche. Ces fonds favoriseraient la mise en place d’un programme de conservation et d’amelioration a fin d’assurer la disponibilite des produits du baobab sur le marche et la conservation des ressources du baobab. La promotion de la sante et de la securite alimentaire basee sur le developpement de ces produits jouera egalement un role dans la conservation de l’espece.

This datapaper collects individual georeferenced tree height data from Pinus nigra Arn., P. pinaster Aiton, and P. pinea L. planted in common gardens in France, Germany, Morocco, and Spain. The data can be used to assess genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity with further applications in biogeography and forest management. The three datasets are available at (Vizcaino-Palomar et al. 2018a), (Vizcaino-Palomar et al. 2018b), and (Vizcaino-Palomar et al. 2018c), and the associated metadata are available at , and for P. nigra, P. pinaster and P. pinea, respectively.

espanolLa disponibilidad de semilla y su viabilidad son procesos clave para la persistencia de los bosques maduros. Existen evidencias de que la senescencia en los arboles no disminuye la fecundidad en edades avanzadas, pero se desconoce si tiene efectos sobre la viabilidad de la progenie. Este trabajo analiza la influencia de la edad del arbol sobre los atributos biometricos de la semilla, la germinacion y la emergencia en los bosques maduros de Quercus suber en los Parques Nacionales de Cabaneros y Monfrague. En cada uno de los PPNN se seleccionaron 45-48 individuos de Quercus suber, entre jovenes y senescentes, cubriendose el rango de diametros encontrados (24 a 100 cm en el PN de Cabaneros y 24 a 176 cm en el PN de Monfrague). Se tomaron sus coordenadas y se midio su tamano (diametro, altura y diametros de copa). Ademas, se estimo la edad a 1,30 m de altura (dbh) mediante la extraccion de testigos de madera. En diciembre de 2018 se recogio toda la semilla presente en los individuos seleccionados, que no fue muy abundante debido a la marcada veceria en 2018. Se determinaron los caracteres biometricos de cada bellota (peso fresco, diametro y longitud), analizandose el efecto de la edad del arbol, a traves del dbh. Los resultados muestran el efecto del sitio, la edad del arbol y el tamano de la bellota, tanto en la produccion de semilla, como en su caracterizacion biometrica, germinacion y emergencia, aunque la baja cosecha registrada en 2018 enmascara las diferencias esperadas. EnglishSeed availability and viability are key processes for the persistence of mature forests. There are evidences that tree senescence does not decrease seed fecundity. However, the effect of senescence on the viability of the progeny in mature forests has not been assessed. This study analyses the influence of tree age on biometric traits of the acorn, germination and emergence in mature forests of Quercus suberin Cabaneros and Monfrague National Parks. We selected 45 to 48 trees in each National Park (NP), covering from young to old trees along the range of diameter at breast height (DBH) found (from 24 to 100 cm in Cabaneros NP, and from 24 to 176 cm in Monfrague NP). Measurements included coordinates, DBH, height and two perpendicular crown diameters. Tree age was estimated at 1.3 m by extracting cores. In December 2018 seeds were collected from the selected trees. The yield was not abundant due to the marked masting year. After numbering the acorns individually, different biometric traits were measured (fresh weight, diameter, volume and length), and the effect of tree age was analysed, considering DBH as a proxy of tree age. Acorns were seeded to monitor germination and emergence. The results show the effect of site, tree age and acorn size on seed production, biometric traits, germination and emergence. Acorn size varied with parental trees and within a tree. The low yield in 2018 could in part mask the results.

9 Pág. Instituto de Ciencias Forestales (ICIFOR), The potential of pine resin as a renewable non-timber product is furthering the socioeconomic relevance of the resin industry in Europe, where maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is the main tapped species. Characterizing maritime pine genetic resources in terms of resin yield potential and its covariation with tree growth is crucial to implement efficient tree breeding programs aiming to maximize resin yield without negatively impact tree growth. We explored genetic variation in resin yield and tree growth among provenance regions, populations within regions, and families of maritime pine. We used a progeny trial located at Central Spain to estimate additive genetic variation and heritability of resin yield, and a common garden located at Northwest Spain to explore variation among provenance regions and populations within regions. Resin yield was assessed in both trials with and without sulphuric-based stimulant paste. Association between growth and resin yield at different levels (phenotypes, families, populations and provenance regions) was also explored. Growth and resin yield were highly variable within populations, with narrow-sense heritability estimates being particularly high for resin yield (hi2 = 0.49). Growth varied significantly across provenance regions and populations within regions, while resin yield was only variable among provenance regions. Genetic variation in resin yield was similar in trees with and without stimulant paste. We did not find evidence of genetic correlations between growth and resin yield. However, at the phenotype level resin yield and growth were significantly correlated, although the sign of such association switched between trials. Across provenance regions, growth and resin yield where negatively correlated. Altogether, the high narrow-sense heritability estimate, the highly consistent genetic variation and the lack of negative genetic correlation with growth evidence the opportunity for implementing breeding programs to increase resin yield in maritime pine forests., This study was supported by the Regional Government of Galicia (“RESDRON” grant, Feader2018/066B, Xunta de Galicia/FEADER) and by the Spanish Government (“RESILPINE” grant, RTI2018-094691-B-C33, MCIU/AEI/FEDER-UE and “GENMAC” grant, 2018ES06RDEI12479V1, MAPA/AEI-Agri/FEADER, UE). C.V.G. and X.L.G. received financial support from the FPI grant programme (MINECO-Spain BES-2016-076624 and BES-2013-062663). Authors thank ‘Consellería do Medio Rural, Xunta de Galicia’ who supported the establishment of the Saviñao provenance trial, and CIFOR INIA and UPM who established and maintained the Carbonero provenance trial. Help in field assessments by Jacobo Roselló, Santiago Gil, Fernando Peña, María Bragados, and the Asociación Nacional Resinera are also acknowledged. We also thank Silvana Poceiro and María Lores for their help in the lab.

Research on operational programs for the conservation and improvement of forest genetic resources is associated with use and non-use values, given that such research not only generates new knowledge but also incorporates both commercial benefits and benefits related to the conservation of genetic material for reproduction. This article applies a discrete choice experiment that allows analyzing the preferences of Spanish society for operational programs for the breeding and conservation of P. pinaster. Such programs are financed mainly by public research funds, and it would be advisable to include citizens' preferences regarding programs for the conservation and improvement of forest genetic resources. The analysis quantifies the trade-offs between the various characteristics of the program, such as production improvements, biotic and abiotic risks, genetic diversity, and the biodiversity of pine forests. The results show that society is willing to pay for research in these directions, above all research on greater resistance to biotic risks. Likewise, the study shows how research on transgenic forest resources is not socially accepted, thus adding to the arguments in favor of the current prohibition in Spain on marketing this type of forest reproductive material. Finally, considering the current R&D budget and the average tax collection in Spain, the WTP seems to be biased upwards. In this sense, an analysis of individual's response time as a proxy of carelessness was performed.

Quantifying intraspecific genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity of traits involved in drought tolerance is essential to forecast forest tree vulnerability to climate change. Tree ring analysis was applied to retrospectively assess the resistance, recovery and resilience of a Mediterranean pine in the face of extreme climate episodes. We combined a dendrochronological approach with the analysis of common-garden tests to disentangle genetic, environment and genetic-by-environment effects in growth responses of 10 P. pinaster populations to two extreme climatic events. Trees were 43 years old and had experienced two intense droughts, in 1995 and 2005. Drought events caused drastic reductions in secondary growth, but trees showed high capacity to recover pre-drought growth rates. The differences in the characteristics of the two drought events and the environmental distance between sites strongly modulated maritime pine responses to extreme droughts. However, a common among-population signal across sites and events was detected in the drought response strategy. Among-population variation in response to extreme droughts was evident for the resistance and recovery components, two strategies that appeared to trade-off between each other. Populations from Atlantic climates showed higher resistance but lower recovery capacity, whereas Mediterranean origins prioritised recovery over resistance. Mediterranean populations showed a more conservative strategy that indicated an adaptive advantage under water stress, reflected in greater long-term survival. The abovementioned relationships were clear in the site where the impact of the drought events was strongest, but not in the more favourable site. Differences in relationships between sites reflect that strategies of populations to cope with drought are strongly context dependent. Based on these results, we infer that future extreme droughts will differentially affect P. pinaster populations across the natural range of the species. Immediate effects will be more evident in Mediterranean areas but, in the long term, population persistence in the face of climate change will be more compromised for Atlantic origins. Because local environmental conditions can considerably modulate responses to extreme events, special attention is required to define appropriate management practices to mitigate the impact of future droughts.

Producción Científica, Management of forest genetic resources requires experimental data related to the genetic variation of the species and populations under different climatic conditions. Foresters also demand to know how the main selective drivers will influence the adaptability of the genetic resources. To assess the inter- and intraspecific variation and plasticity in seedling drought tolerance at a relevant genetic resource management scale, we tested the changes in growth and biomass allocation of seedlings of Pinus oocarpa, P. patula and P. pseudostrobus under two contrasting watering regimes. We found general significant intraspecific variation and intraspecific differences in plasticity, since both population and watering by population interaction were significant for all three species. All the species and populations share a common general avoidance mechanism (allometric adjustment of shoot/root biomass). However, the intraspecific variation and differences in phenotypic plasticity among populations modify the adaptation strategies of the species to drought. Some of the differences are related to the climatic conditions of the location of origin. We confirmed that even at reduced geographical scales, Mexican pines present differences in the response to water stress. The differences among species and populations are relevant in afforestation programs as well as in genetic conservation activities.

International audience; The conservation and sustainable use of forests in the twenty-first century pose huge challenges for forest management and policy. Society demands that forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services, from timber products, raw materials and renewable energy to sociocultural amenities and habitats for nature conservation. Innovative management and policy approaches need to be developed to meet these often-conflicting demands in a context of environmental change of uncertain magnitude and scale. Genetic diversity is a key component of resilience and adaptability. Overall, forest tree populations are genetically very diverse, conferring them an enormous potential for genetic adaptation via the processes of gene flow and natural selection. Here, we review the main challenges facing our forests in the coming century and focus on how recent progress in genetics can contribute to the development of appropriate practical actions that forest managers and policy makers can adopt to promote forest resilience to climate change. Emerging knowledge will inform and clarify current controversies relating to the choice of appropriate genetic resources for planting, the effect of silvicultural systems and stand tending on adaptive potential and the best ways to harness genetic diversity in breeding and conservation programs. Gaps in our knowledge remain, and we identify where additional information is needed (e.g., the adaptive value of peripheral populations or the genetic determinism of key adaptive traits) and the types of studies that are required to provide this key understanding.

Aim of study: To contribute to the characterization of the origin of material used in afforestation, restoration or conservation activities by using Cp-SSR markers. Area of study: We used information from the natural range of Iberian pines, from Spain. Materials and methods: We used Iberian pines as an example to undertook gene pool characterization based on a wide Iberian sample of 97 populations from five Pinus species ( Pinus halepensis , Pinus pinaster , Pinus nigra , Pinus sylvestris and Pinus uncinata ). Haplotypes from each analyzed tree (derived from nine chloroplast microsatellites markers in P. halepensis and six in the rest of the species) were obtained. Based on this information we subdivided each species in regions (considering both genetic structure and its application in afforestation, restoration and conservation programs) and tested the assignation of populations to the different groups based on the genetic distance among samples. Main results: The rate of successful identification of populations among the different species was very high (> 94 %) for P. nigra , P. sylvestris and P. uncinata , high (81 %) for P. pinaster , and low (< 65 %) for P. halepensis. Research highlights: Chloroplast DNA markers from extensive population datasets can be used to assign the origin of the forest reproductive material in some pine species.

Aim To integrate two major components of vulnerability to climate change adaptive capacity (approached by genetic groups) and exposure (approached by risk of habitat loss) illustrated with the maritime (Pinus pinaster Ait.) and Aleppo (Pinus halepensis Mill.) pines. To integrate such information in the selection of conservation strategies (ex situ vs. in situ) and to evaluate current European efforts in the conservation of forest genetic resources. Location Mediterranean Basin and European Atlantic coast. Methods With the objective of preserving the overall genetic diversity of our two target species, we individually assess each of their genetic groups. We fit a species distribution model and project it to current climate and 42 different future climatic predictions. We create future suitability maps to assess risk of habitat loss based on the number of future climate projections that predict suitability. According to this assessment on the risk of habitat loss, we propose suitable conservation strategies. Results We found areas suitable for in situ conservation for most of the genetic groups, the exception being the central–eastern–southern Iberian genetic groups of maritime pine and the Moroccan genetic group of Aleppo pine which required ex situ conservation. In the current European conservation network, three genetic groups for maritime pine and two for Aleppo pine remain unrepresented, and the representation of the rest is unbalanced. Main conclusions We provide a tool to support conservation management of forest trees, an increasingly important task given the negative impact of climate change on forest ecosystems. We also provide a framework to increase the efficiency of the European conservation network (i) exposure assessment should be considered as a requirement for a population to become a dynamic conservation unit (DCU); and (ii) as illustrated with our two target species, the selection of DCUs should represent all existing genetic groups. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Aim of study: To propose a new approach to defining rotation ages on the basis of productive and technological aspects and to present an example of application of the methodology to natural Pinus sylvestris stands in relation to silvicultural treatment (light or heavy thinning) and site index. Area of study: Central Spain. Material and methods: We assumed that the price per m3 of logwood suitable for veneer is four times higher than logwood not apt for veneer. Considering the yield distribution for different technological and commercial classes, a model of diameter distributions and yield tables, the variation in an average price index for different age classes, site indexes and silvicultural treatments was calculated. The age at which the price index rises by less than 3%, the proportion of trees with d.b.h. higher than 40 cm, and other aspects such as the possible presence of fungal decay in old-growth stands were also taken into account to establish three criteria for defining rotation ages. Main results: The proposed methodology generates a wide range of rotation ages between 100 and 140 years for lightly thinned stands, and between 90 and 140 years for heavily thinned stands, depending on the site index. Research highlights: The proposed approach is based on technological and productive criteria, with the limitations imposed by sanitary risks. The methodology can be applied to generate rotation ages in relation to different site indexes and silvicultural treatments, provided that the timber market prices and the yield distribution for different technological and commercial classes are known, and that a model of diameter distributions and yield tables are available. SI

Tree height-diameter allometry, the link between tree height and trunk diameter, reflects the evolutionary response of a particular species’ allocation patterns to above and belowground resources. As a result, it differs among and within species due to both local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity. These phenotypic variations in tree height-diameter allometry determine tree productivity, resistance and resilience to climate variation and, ultimately, the success of plant material used in restoration projects. We tested the effect of climate change and population origin on the phenotypic variation of tree allometry in four pine species at an early stage of development (ca. 11 years old) based upon data originated from multi-site provenance tests and planted along a wide climatic range in south-western Europe. For a representative sample of populations from each species, we used already-developed species-specific height-diameter allometric models to assess changes in allometry between present and future climatic conditions. We found that Pinus halepensis and Pinus pinaster were the most plastic species, while Pinus sylvestris and Pinus nigra showed negligible plastic responses. In addition, our models stressed that pine tree height-diameter allometry will change and phenotypic variation could increase, except in P. sylvestris, under future environmental conditions. For some of the species, this might allow the selection of phenotypes better suited to novel climatic conditions. These foreseeable changes in tree height-diameter allometry (among and within-species) could entail eco-evolutionary effects on the early forest plantation dynamics. Therefore, restoration and reforestation plans should consider these effects, as they may interfere with production and/or environmental goals. © 2016, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

Three screening methods—visual scoring (V), relative conductivity (C) and fluorometry (F)—were used to study the genetic variation in cold hardiness among six populations of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) comprising both Atlantic and Mediterranean origins. Freezing damage assessments were carried out in three organs—needles, stems and buds—in two seasons, spring and autumn. We found high levels of genetic differentiation among populations for cold hardiness in autumn, but not in spring. Within populations, differences were always significant (p

Producción Científica, Aim of the study: Understanding post-fire germination of tree species in arid and semi-arid zones of sub-Saharan Africa.Area of study: Ethiopian Acacia senegal L. and Acacia seyal Del. forests.Material and methods: Seeds were subjected to heat shocks at combinations of four temperatures (60º, 90º, 120º and 150ºC) and three exposure times (1, 5 and 10 minutes). A control was also included, resulting in a total of thirteen treatments. After the application of the heat shocks, the viability of no germinated seeds was assessed after immersion in a Tetrazolium solution. A mixed and a logistic model were used to analyse the influence of heat shock on germination.Main results: Results showed that germination depended on the species, the heat shock treatment and their interaction. Both species showed similar germination results at temperatures below 90ºC in all exposure times, however, germination in Acacia senegal was statistically higher in most of the heat shocks. On the other hand, germination probability decreased in both species, when the exposure time increased, although with a different behaviour. In 1 minute of time of exposure, the germination probability was higher than 60% in the two species throughout the temperature range. However, at 5 minutes of time and temperature smaller than 90°C, the probability of germination was higher than 70% in A. senegal and 50% in A. seyal. Although germination in both species was impacted by the different heat shocks, non-germinated seeds were viable.Research highlights: This paper showed, according to these results, that heat shock would negatively influence the regeneration of both species, and especially for A. seyal, Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (MAEC-AECID [584953]), Programa Nacional de Selección e Incorporación de Personas, programm [PTQ-12-05409]

Aim of study: Indigenous woody species play an important role as a complement on the diet of rural populations in Niger, especially in periods of food scarcity. However, these species are nowadays overexploited and management programmes are necessary to conserve them. In order to design a conservation programme for edible woody species, this paper presents a sociological analysis about the use of edible woody species and their products during shortage periods in Niger.Area of study: Four villages in two distinct agro-ecological regions were selected to conduct structured enquiries based on focus group discussions and surveys with key informants.Material and Methods: Perceptions of the conservation status of these species were identified; as well the factors affecting food values, perceptions, management and collection practices.Main results: Results show that B. senegalensis was a staple food in the driest areas, and M. crassifolia was used for fodder and human consumption in the most critical situations. The local communities related the drivers of species conservation status specific to the agro-ecological regions, and gender and ethnic differences were also identified.Research highlights: Understanding these factors constitutes a first step towards adaptive management strategies for the conservation of woody food species in rural communities of Niger.Keywords: Africa; biodiversity; cultural preferences; food; NTFPs.

Potential for evolutionary responses to climate change - Evidence from tree populations

Premise of the Study Plants have developed mechanisms to withstand stressful environmental conditions, but the high energetic cost of these mechanisms may involve exchanges with other key functions. While trade-offs between cold hardiness and growth rates are a general assumption, we lack information regarding genetically based trade-offs between cold hardiness and other life-history traits. Such information has strong implications for tree conservation and breeding, especially in the context of ongoing climate change. METHODS We used a common garden progeny test to examine the relationships between seasonal cold hardiness and life-history traits of growth, reproduction, juvenile ontogeny, and phenology in 75 families of six maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) populations, three of continental and three of coastal origins. KEY RESULTS We found a clear differentiation among populations with regard to cold hardiness and life-history traits. Two continental Iberian populations showed high cold tolerance and slower growth, but faster ontogenetic development in relation to both vegetative heteroblastic change in juveniles and the onset of female reproduction. The coastal populations displayed the opposite behavior, while the continental Moroccan population presented a unique combination of traits. We confirmed trade-offs between cold-hardiness and growth at the population level, but not within populations. There were no trade-offs with other life-history traits at either level. CONCLUSIONS Relevant local adaptation syndromes were identified in the relationship between cold hardiness and life-history traits. These should be considered in developing tree management guidelines aimed at increasing productivity or adaptability under the expected conditions of climate change. � 2016 Botanical Society of America.

Preserving intraspecific genetic diversity is essential for long-term forest sustainability in a climate change scenario. Despite that, genetic information is largely neglected in conservation planning, and how conservation units should be defined is still heatedly debated. Here, we use maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.), an outcrossing long-lived tree with a highly fragmented distribution in the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot, to prove the importance of accounting for genetic variation, of both neutral molecular markers and quantitative traits, to define useful conservation units. Six gene pools associated to distinct evolutionary histories were identified within the species using 12 microsatellites and 266 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In addition, height and survival standing variation, their genetic control, and plasticity were assessed in a multisite clonal common garden experiment (16 544 trees). We found high levels of quantitative genetic differentiation within previously defined neutral gene pools. Subsequent cluster analysis and post hoc trait distribution comparisons allowed us to define 10 genetically homogeneous population groups with high evolutionary potential. They constitute the minimum number of units to be represented in a maritime pine dynamic conservation program. Our results uphold that the identification of conservation units below the species level should account for key neutral and adaptive components of genetic diversity, especially in species with strong population structure and complex evolutionary histories. The environmental zonation approach currently used by the pan-European genetic conservation strategy for forest trees would be largely improved by gradually integrating molecular and quantitative trait information, as data become available. © 2016 by the Ecological Society of America.