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Simple Summary: The greater rhea (Rhea americana) is the largest endemic bird species in the central and northeastern regions of Brazil. It has economic importance due to its meat, leather, and feathers being appreciated, but its hunting is only allowed in registered commercial breeding grounds because of its threat of extinction. In Brazil, these animals are found mainly in captivity, thus facing different management and nutrition than free-living animals, a fact that can affect health problems identified only through laboratory tests. This study carried out an analysis of the serum biochemistry of greater rhea raised in captivity in the northeast of the country and identified that the values of calcium, cholesterol, and uric acid were higher in females than in males, allowing the result to be attributed to diet or stress at the time of collection. Our study is the first report on the biochemical profile of greater rheas in captivity in Brazil, and the data showed broad-spectrum results which contribute to the diagnosis of diseases through the analysis and interpretation of the biochemical profile of these animals in the practice of the veterinary clinic. We investigated the biochemical profile of greater rheas (Rhea americana) in captivity and correlated these values according to the birds' sex. A total of 69 serum samples were collected from a breeding site in Mossoró, northeastern Brazil, and analyzed to quantify serum biochemical parameters (total protein, albumin, cholesterol, calcium, phosphorus, uric acid, urea, creatinine, ALP, AST, and CK). The birds had levels of urea, creatinine, total cholesterol, aspartate aminotransferase, calcium, and phosphorus similar to the values reported for ratite and ostrich species. By sex, females showed higher values (p < 0.05) of calcium (3.5 mmol/L), total cholesterol (7.5 mmol/L), and uric acid (435.3 μmol/L) than males, which had 3.1 mmol/L, 3.8 mmol/L, and 390.7 μmol/L, respectively. This can be attributed to the difference in diet, the productive phase of females, or stress at the time of sampling. The data present a wide spectrum of biochemical results regarding the health of greater rheas, contributing to the veterinary clinical practice of this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Haemosporidians are heteroxenous, cosmopolitan protozoa that infect birds, using hematophagous dipterans as vectors. The genus Plasmodium has a moderate species diversity and is known for great flexibility in alternating host species, mild to severe pathogenicity, and generally low prevalence. Plasmodium huffi was first described in 1950 and considered insufficiently characterized, however, in 2021, this species was re-described as infecting two different Brazilian toucans, Ramphastos toco and Pteroglossus aracari. Herein, we describe four new potential avian host species for P. huffi: Pavo cristatus, Cariama cristata, Rhea americana, and Porphyrio martinica by employing molecular diagnostics and conducting phylogenetic analysis, providing the detection of the RTCE206 and PACE173 lineages of P. huffi, previously described in Toco Toucan and Black-necked Araçari, respectively. Our study reinforces the data in the literature on the great flexibility of the genus Plasmodium in alternating host species. In addition, it highlights the current knowledge about P. huffi encompassing its underestimated potential for host diversity. Further research is essential, particularly involving bird groups frequently excluded from haemosporidian studies in Brazil, such as non-passeriform birds, to accurately elucidate the P. huffi host-parasite relationships., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Richard de Campos Pacheco reports was provided by Federal University of Mato Grosso. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We investigated the biochemical profile of greater rheas (Rhea americana) in captivity and correlated these values according to the birds’ sex. A total of 69 serum samples were collected from a breeding site in Mossoró, northeastern Brazil, and analyzed to quantify serum biochemical parameters (total protein, albumin, cholesterol, calcium, phosphorus, uric acid, urea, creatinine, ALP, AST, and CK). The birds had levels of urea, creatinine, total cholesterol, aspartate aminotransferase, calcium, and phosphorus similar to the values reported for ratite and ostrich species. By sex, females showed higher values (p < 0.05) of calcium (3.5 mmol/L), total cholesterol (7.5 mmol/L), and uric acid (435.3 μmol/L) than males, which had 3.1 mmol/L, 3.8 mmol/L, and 390.7 μmol/L, respectively. This can be attributed to the difference in diet, the productive phase of females, or stress at the time of sampling. The data present a wide spectrum of biochemical results regarding the health of greater rheas, contributing to the veterinary clinical practice of this species.

Os malófagos são piolhos mastigadores, encontrados em aves e mamíferos. Nas emas (Rhea americana) podem causar grandes prejuízos ao comércio, devido à perda da qualidade das plumas, danificação das penas, lesões na pele e debilidade. Sendo assim, objetiva-se com o estudo relatar a infestação por piolhos em emas criadas em cativeiro. Os piolhos foram preservados em álcool 70%, clarificados com lactofenol e montadas as lâminas para observação em microscópio óptico. Nas emas observou-se alterações como desidratação, pele descamada e áspera, penas deformadas, falhadas e opacas e presença de piolhos malófagos da espécie Struthiolipeurus rheae.

Knowledge of the ontogenetic pattern of morphological features is essential to improve biological interpretations. The study of morphological features of the pelvic girdle and hind limb apparatus throughout growth is an excellent approach to understand how the skeletal morphology and muscles are interrelated during growth in a bird with a specialized mode of locomotion. The Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) is a large cursorial palaeognathous bird with long legs and powerful musculature. The postnatal shape changes of the pelvis of this bird were studied with geometric morphometric techniques, using landmarks and semilandmarks. In addition, regression analyses were used to explore the association between pelvic shape changes with muscle and body mass. The pelvises of 16 specimens of Rhea americana from 1 month old to adulthood were studied in dorsal and lateral views. Noticeable differences in pelvic shape were noted between ages, particularly in lateral view. In young birds, the pre‐ and post‐acetabular ilium was subequal in length, whereas in adults the pre‐acetabular ilium became shorter. In dorsal view, the main shape changes observed were the progressive thinning of both ilium portions and the elongation of the vertex craniolateralis ilii from chicks to adulthood. In this view, the only clear differentiation was between young and adult birds. Shape differences were influenced by body mass and pelvic muscles; the post‐acetabular muscle mass explained the highest percentage of the variation. The specialized locomotion of Greater Rhea is reflected in their pelvic musculoskeletal system, in which the change to a longer post‐acetabular ilium correlates with the growth of the powerful post‐acetabular muscles. The actions of these muscles provide the necessary strength to support the body mass, minimize the body swinging movements and propel the body forward during locomotion. Bone morphology is affected by the forces produced by body mass and the muscle activity, demonstrating the presence of common growth mechanisms, which are primordial and gave rise to a functional and properly proportioned adult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ciliate species Balantioides coli can be cross-transmitted between humans and several animal species. Usually harmless, sometimes it can be pathogenic and cause the death of the host. In birds, B. coli has been confirmed in ostriches by genetic analysis, but the identification from South American greater rheas (Rhea americana) and lesser rheas (Rhea pennata pennata) is tentative. Since these species are reared for commercial purposes and for reintroduction into the wild, it is necessary to elucidate whether the ciliate from rheas is B. coli to minimize health risks for humans and for other domestic and wild animals. Individual parasite cells are collected from Argentinean isolates of reared greater rheas and of wild and reared lesser rheas, and their ITS region was PCR amplified; the cloning products were sequenced and compared with sequences available in public databases. The results have shown that several sequence types are expressed at the same time in the parasite cells, and all correspond to B. coli, confirming the possibility of cross-transmission of the parasite between wild and reared South American rheas and several mammal species and humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we present the results of the analysis of a modified bone fragment of Rhea americana (greater Rhea), providing new information regarding prehispanic osteological technology in the Paraguay-Parana sector of the Argentinean Chaco at Late Holocene. With the aim of characterizing the stages of production, we describe manufacturing marks. One mark was analyzed with a Scanning Electron Microscope to identify the material with which the cut marks had been produced (i.e., stone or shell edge). Based on this analysis, we define the bone element as a core with "sketched extraction": a piece in which a base form that has not yet been extracted is evidenced. We propose that the manufacturing technique consisted of making grooves using valve edges (Diplodon sp.). This research constitutes the first evidence of the use of mollusk shell edges in the process of making bone tools in archaeological sites in Argentina. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Adrenocortical and behavioral responses of Greater Rhea depend on the environment. • Adrenocortical responses in Greater Rhea suggest phenotypic plasticity of HPA axis. • Yolk corticosterone influences the stress responses in Greater Rhea. Abstract The Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) is an endemic ratite to South America, whose wild populations have undergone a remarkable decrease due to habitat degradation and fragmentation by the expansion of the agricultural frontier, poaching and predation by dogs. Anthropogenic perturbations in wild environments, as well as the management in captivity, can generate different stress responses in this species, thus, the monitoring of adrenocortical and behavioral activities are considered primary assessment tools with both conservation and welfare implications. In this review we analyze and integrate the different measurements of glucocorticoids (in plasma, feces, and yolk) carried out in different captive and wild populations, taking into account the diverse predictable and unpredictable conditions to which the Greater Rhea responds in each of those environments. In addition, the translocation of this bird is presented as an application of stress physiology in field ecology for conservation purposes, in which we evaluated how this species responds when it is released into a novel environment. Our results indicate that this ratite has a striking high sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis compared to that of other bird species and shows a wide variety of adrenocortical responses depending on the environment in which it lives. This suggests that its HPA axis has a phenotypic plasticity that enables the rhea to cope with the environmental challenges. In this sense, we propose that one of the routes of this plasticity could be mediated by the maternal transfer of steroid hormones to the egg. Finally, we discuss the importance of integrating the monitoring of the adrenocortical response along with the environmental variables that define the life history of the species, in management and conservation programs ex-situ and in situ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The husbandry and medical records, and necropsy reports, of 1,002 captive Struthioniformes that died at the Réserve Africaine de Sigean (France) from 1974 to 2015 were examined. The goal of this study was to determine the most common causes of mortality in ostriches (Struthio camelus), emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae), and American rheas (Rhea americana), in order to highlight common causes of mortality, as well as the influence of age, gender, and rearing methods on mortality. The most prevalent cause of mortality was pathology of digestive origin in the neonates of all three species, especially yolk-sac infections, which accounted for 41% of all deaths in this captive neonate population and was especially prevalent in hand-reared neonates. Other causes included musculoskeletal disorders in emus (particularly hand-reared) and rheas; trauma in neonate ostriches, mainly due to crushing by parents; leg deformities in emu chicks and juveniles; general sepsis in hand-reared ratite chicks due to a chlamydiosis outbreaks (1989–1990); trauma by conspecifics in subadult ostriches and emus; stress myopathy in subadult rheas, particularly after introduction to a new enclosure; evisceration inflicted by herbivorous enclosure mates on adult male ostriches; fatal peritonitis following salpingitis in adult female ostriches; and death associated with ocular disorder in adult male emus. Although this study was conducted at one institution, and its results reflect this zoo's management and zootechnical practices, its findings could well have implications for management practices involving other captive Struthioniforme populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El rol de Rhea americana en la subsistencia de los antiguos pobladores ha sido analizado en diferentes regiones del país, principalmente en la Pampeana y Patagónica. En varios sitios de la provincia de Santiago del Estero se registra la presencia de R. americana con evidencias directas de consumo, y habría ocupado el segundo o tercer puesto de importancia en los recursos faunísticos de los grupos humanos luego de los camélidos para el período agroalfarero. En este trabajo se analizan los restos de R. americana del sitio Beltrán Onofre Banegas-Lami Hernández (contexto Sunchitúyoj, período agroalfarero tardío, ca. 800-300 AP) con el fin de evaluar los procesos que generaron su registro. Se realizó la cuantificación, la comparación con marcos de referencia y el análisis tafonómico de los materiales. En este sentido, se observa una mayor proporción de los elementos del miembro posterior, en menor medida del esqueleto axial y escaso del miembro anterior. Estos restos presentan evidencias de acumulación antrópica y una incidencia de la acción de agentes naturales que consideramos no fue significativa. De los resultados obtenidos, se infiere que la actividad antrópica fue el principal factor que contribuyó a una proporción diferencial de partes esqueletarias

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Copyright of Revista del Museo de Antropología is the property of Museo de Antropologia - IDACOR and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Rhea pampeanaMoreno and Mercerat 1891 is an extinct species of Rheidae (Aves, Palaeognathae) from the Pleistocene of Buenos Aires province, Argentina. This taxon has been the subject of different and confusing changes of its taxonomic status, and an adequate description is still lacking. This study re-examines the materials assigned toRhea pampeanawith the objective to evaluate their status as a distinct fossil species. The poor preservation of the materials plus certain osteological features of thetibiotarsusandtarsometatarsusallowed to reassign these materials to the living speciesRhea americana. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Sinusitis is a common finding in avian species; however, it presents unique treatment challenges in ratites. A 6-yr-old male greater rhea ( Rhea americana) presented acutely with right infraorbital sinus swelling and chemosis. Oral antibiotics were prescribed based on bacterial culture results with incomplete resolution of clinical signs. A computed tomography scan of the skull demonstrated a mixed-density soft tissue mass with extensive destruction of the right nasal bone, hard palate, maxilla, and frontal bone. The affected tissue was surgically resected and histopathology was consistent with inspissated necrotic tissue. Aerobic culture of the mass grew a multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and was treated with amikacin. Ten months postsurgery, no further clinical signs were observed. Advanced diagnostic imaging with computed tomography and surgical therapy facilitated complete resolution of this resistant bacterial sinusitis in a species that is not typically amenable to frequent handling and restraint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mannheimia haemolytica (MH) é uma das principais causas da doença do complexo respiratório dos bovinos (DCRB) que causa grandes perdas econômicas. Até os dias atuais, não há relato de aves acometidas por tal bactéria. Relata-se um surto atípico de mannheimiose em emas em cativeiro (Rhea americana).

The fast agglutination screening test, using S. Typhimurium as the antigen, was compared with the standard bacterial method to identify rheas (Rhea americana) contaminated with Salmonella spp.at slaughter.Seventy birds were serologically tested for Salmonella enterica Pullorum using a commercial antigen.Of these, 66 were also submitted to a macroagglutination test, using a strain of Salmonella Typhimurium isolated from rheas.All birds did not react with the commercial S. Pullorum antigen, but 37 were positive for the FAST-ST.The isolation of Salmonella spp. was verified in 66 (94.2%) birds. 85.7% were found in liver samples, 60% in feces and 42.3% in cloacal swabs.A total of 16.6% were identified as being S. enterica enterica rugosa, 35.9% as S. Typhimurium, 46.5% as S.Newport and 0.9% as S. Anatum. An insignificant concordance between the results of bacterial isolation and the serological response was observed (k=0.016).The detection of Salmonella spp. by bacteriological and serological methods in samples from rheas must be deemed important, because birds without a clinical manifestation can be significant sources of salmonellas in food infections.

The action of the "Stress Factor Ostrich (Arenales - Fauna and Flora)" was tested in the release of superoxide anion by cells in the peripheral blood of rhea (Rhea americana). Sixteen samples of 0.5mL of venous blood were collected through the jugular vein in the morning and placed in heparinized tubes. The leukocytes were separated into polymorphonuclear (PMN) and mononuclear (MN). The production of superoxide anion by phagocytes of peripheral blood was determined using the chromogen ferricytochrome C. There was a reduction of superoxide by MN cells in the presence of "Stress Factor Ostrich" indicating a positive influence of product against oxidative stress. Furthermore, future researches, such as the evaluation of other reactive oxygen intermediates and antioxidant enzymes, researches.

Composición química y perfil de ácidos grasos de la carne de ñandú (Rhea americana). El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar la composición aproximada y el perfil de ácidos grasos en la carne de la parte intramuscular IMF) interna de la pierna de ñandú (Rhea americana). Las aves fueron criadas en cautiverio, alimentadas con ración balanceada (Nutriavestruz Crescimento - Purina) y mantenidas en corral con pasto ad lib. La edad media de las aves de los dos sexos usados en la investigación fue de 12 meses y el peso medio de 23 kg. Fueron sometidas a dieta hídrica por 12 horas antes de matarlas por aplicación de descarga eléctrica. Los resultados de contenido medio de humedad, proteína, cenizas y lípidos totales fue de 74.1%, 22.8%, 1.5% y 1.6%, respectivamente. Fue posible notar una predominancia de ácidos grasos monoinsaturados (MUFA) en la gordura intramuscular (IMF) ), 42.3% y un alto porcentaje de ácidos grasos poli-insaturados (PUFA), 29.7%. Los ácidos grasos encontrados en mayor proporción en rhea IMF fueron: 18:2n 6 (24.33%), 18:1n 9 (19.25%), 16:0 (13.70%), 22:1n9 (11.40%), 18:0 (10.66%), 15:1n 10 (8.62%), 24:1n 9 (2.90%) y 20:4n 6 (1.72%). La PUFA/SFA (ácidos grasos saturados) y relación n-6/ n-3 fue 1.06 y 31.30, respectivamente. El consumo de carne de ñandú es una alternativa saludable frente a la carne roja pues su consumo presenta una menor susceptibilidad a enfermedades cardiovasculares causadas por alto consumo de grasas cuando comparado con el consumo de carne de animales domesticados.The purpose of this work was to determine the proximate composition and fatty acid profiles of the Gastrocnemius pars interna intramuscular fat (IMF) of rhea (Rhea americana) thighs. The birds were bred in captivity, fed with balanced feed (Nutriavestruz Crescimento - Purina) and kept in a pen with grass ad lib. The birds of both sexes used in the research weighed 23 kg on average and were aged about twelve (12) months old. They were subjected to hydric diet (12 h) before slaughtering by electric shock. The rhea meat showed an average moisture, protein, ash and total lipid contents of 74.1%, 22.8%, 1.5% and 1.6%, respectively. It was noticed the predominance of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in intramuscular fat (IMF), 42.3% and a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 29.7%.. The fatty acids found in higher proportion in rhea IMF were: 18:2n-6 (24.33%), 18:1n-9 (19.25%), 16:0 (13.70%), 22:1n9 (11.40%), 18:0 (10.66%), 15:1n-10 (8.62%), 24:1n-9 (2.90%) and 20:4n-6 (1.72%). The PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 ratios were 1.06 and 31.30, respectively. The consumption of rhea meat is a healthy alternative to red meat as it points to a lower susceptibility to cardiovascular diseases caused by the high consumption of fat comparatively to the consumption of meat from most domesticated animals.

A rheacultura vem crescendo em todo o Brasil. Porém, ainda há uma escassez de informações sobre esta espécie e de médicos veterinários especializados na área. Este trabalho teve como objetivo verificar as diferenças existentes na eletroforese plasmática (gel de agarose) em idades distintas de emas (Rhea americana). Utilizaram-se 45 emas, separadas em quatro grupos: grupo 1 (n=10), animais com 15 dias de idade; grupo 2 (n=10), animais com 30 dias; grupo 3 (n=10), animais com 45 dias e grupo 4 (n=15), animais com 1 ano. Verificou-se homogeneidade nos valores eletroforéticos analisados nas aves dentro de cada faixa etária. Houve diferença entre grupos etários em valores de proteína plasmática total, albumina, globulinas e relação albumina/globulinas. Também houve diferença entre grupos para as frações alfa1, alfa2, ß e gama. Os resultados encontrados demonstram que o perfil eletroforético de emas sofre variações conforme a idade analisada. Dessa forma, exige-se maior atenção por parte do médico veterinário quanto à interpretação desse tipo de exame conforme a idade da ave. Os parâmetros obtidos neste estudo indicam divergência de valores quando comparados com os de outras espécies aviárias, evidenciando a importância de se conhecer tais valores nesta espécie.Breeding of rheas has been growing throughout Brazil. However, there is still lack of information about this species and of professionals specialized in the area. This study was aimed at verifing the differences in plasmatic electrophoresis (agarosis gel) at different ages of rheas (Rhea americana). Fourty-five rheas were separated into 4 groups: group 1: (n=10), 15 day old animals; group 2: (n=10), 30 day old animals; group 3: (n=10), 45 day old animals; group 4: (n=15), 1 year old animals. The electrophoretic values analyzed presented homogeneity within each age group. There were differences between different age groups in the values of total plasmatic protein, albumin, globulins and the albumin/globulin relation. There was also a difference between age groups for fractions alpha1, alpha2, ß and gamma. These results demonstrated that the electrophoretic profile of rheas undergoes variations according to the age analyzed. Therefore, more attention, is needed by the professionals in the interpretation of this type of examination. The parameters obtained from this study show a divergence of values, when compared to from those obtained from other avian species, showing up the importance of understanding these values in this species.

A morfologia do ovário de emas adultas (Rhea americana) sexualmente maduras foi descrita neste trabalho. Os ovários de 24 fêmeas em fase reprodutiva foram colhidos em abatedouro, tomados dados métricos do diâmetro dos folículos (n = 18) e colhidos fragmentos para microscopia de luz (n = 6) fixados em formol 10%, PBS 0,1M, pH 7,4 para microscopia de luz. Nas emas o ovário esquerdo está desenvolvido, ocupando a porção dorsal da cavidade celomática em contato com a porção cranial do rim esquerdo e a glândula adrenal esquerda, sustentado na cavidade pelo mesovário. Na superfície livre do ovário foram observados em média 72,4±17,09 folículos em desenvolvimento e 30,4±3,65 folículos atrésicos. Os folículos estão unidos à superfície ovariana pelo pedúnculo folicular e os em desenvolvimento apresentam uma cinta na superfície, o estigma folicular, rompida nos folículos atrésicos. Histologicamente, o ovário possui uma medula, com tecido conjuntivo frouxo e vasos sangüíneos e um córtex repleto de oócitos e folículos, cuja parede está constituída pelas tecas externa e interna, estrato granuloso e zona radia-da. No córtex observam-se folículos primordiais, pré-vitelogêni-cos e vitelogênicos. A superfície do ovário está revestida por epitélio cúbico baixo, o epitélio germinativo, o qual está sobre o tecido conjuntivo da túnica albugínea. As características morfológicas do ovário da ema são resultado do tamanho do ovo produzido e em geral semelhante ao de outras espécies de aves.The ovarian morphology of the sexually mature rhea (Rhea Americana) is described. Ovaries from 24 adult rheas in their reproductive age were collected in the slaughterhouse. Follicular diameters (n = 18) were measured and samples (n = 6) were fixed in 10% formaldehyde with 0.1M phosphate buffer at pH 7.4 for light microscopy. Results showed that the left ovary occupied the dorsal portion of the celomatic cavity in contact with the cranial portion of the left kidney and the suprarenal gland, being supported in the cavity through the mesovary. On the free surface of the ovary 72.4±17.09 follicles in different phases of development and 30.4±3.65 atretic follicles were observed. The follicles were linked to the ovarian surface by the follicular stalk and had a wide band surrounding its surface, the Stigma folliculare. Histologically, the ovary is constituted by a medulla, composed by connective tissue and vessels, and by a cortex with oocytes and follicles. The follicular wall is composed by the Theca externa and Theca interna, Stratum granulosum and the Zona radiata. The ovary surface is covered by a cubic epithelium, the germinal epithelium, on the connective tissue of the Tunica albuginea. The morphologic characteristics of the ovary of the rhea are due to the egg size in this species and generally similar to other birds.

Avaliaram-se os valores de energia metabolizável aparente e aparente corrigida (EMA e EMAn, respectivamente), os coeficientes de metabolização da energia bruta (CMEB e CMEBn) e da digestibilidade da MS e MO (CDAMS e CDAMO) de alguns alimentos para emas (Rhea americana) de sete meses de idade, utilizando-se as técnicas de coleta total de excretas e do óxido de cromo como indicador. Utilizou-se o delineamento experimental inteiramente ao acaso, em esquema de parcelas subdivididas, com seis tratamentos, cada um com três repetições. O experimento foi realizado três vezes, seqüencialmente. Os valores dos CDAMS, CDAMO, EMA, EMAn, CMEB e CMEBn dos alimentos, determinados por meio da técnica de coleta total de excretas, foram, de modo geral, superiores aos determinados pela técnica do óxido de cromo. A técnica do óxido de cromo mostrou-se inadequada para determinar os CDAMS, CDAMO, EMA, EMAn, CMEB e CMEBn dos alimentos para emas em comparação à técnica de coleta total de excretas. Recomenda-se a realização de ensaios similares envolvendo outras técnicas indiretas para estimar parâmetros de digestibilidade nesta espécie.It was evaluated the values of apparent metabolizable and apparent corrected energy (AME and AMEn, respectively), the coefficients of metabolization of gross energy (MCEC and MCECn) and the digestibility of DM and OM (ADDMC and ADOMC) of some feedstuffs for greater rhea averaging seven months old, by the techniques of total feces collection and chromium oxide as external marker. The experiment was analyzed as a complete randomized design with six treatments and three replications per experiment. The experiment was carried out three times senquentially. The values of ADDMC, ADOMC, AME, AMEn, MCEC and MCECn of feedstuffs determined by total feces collection were greater than those determined with chromium oxide. The use of marker was not efficient to determine ADDMC, ADOMC, AME, AMEn, MCEC and MCECn of the feedstuffs for greater rhea when compared to total feces collection method. It is recommended more studies of indirect techniques to estimate the digestibility parameters in similar assays.

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The aim of this study was to describe the histological structure of the skin of greater rhea (Rhea americana), a ratite bird native to South America. Skin samples were taken from three regions of the trunk (alar, dorsal and pelvic) in 14 specimens which ages ranged from 7 days to adulthood. Serial sections were obtained and subjected to different staining procedures (haematoxylin and eosin, orcein, Masson's trichrome and Gomori), and a morphometric analysis was carried out on stained slides. In general, both epidermis and dermis showed increased thickness of its layers with age. Some differences between regions can be detected both in epidermis and in dermis; for example in adults and 7-dayold birds, the stratum corneum of the alar region was thicker than of the dorsal region. In general, the skin of greater rhea was similar to that described in ratites and other birds (a thin epidermis compared to dermis, dermis with scarce elastic fibres, a slender and vascularized stratum superficiale, collagen fibres arranged in three directions). The scarcity of elastic fibres and the general cross-weaved arrangement of the collagen fibres in the dermis of the adult greater rhea provide strength and flexibility to the dermis, two important features in leather industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The use of common rhea, Rhea americana, as breeding bird requires knowledge of nutritional physiology. It is important the analysis jointly of feed intake, behavior and weight gain. Our objective was to determine and analyze differences in the feed intake, weight gained and behavior of captive subadults and adults male and female rheas during autumn and winter in the Humid Pampas, Argentina. Neither males nor females showed significant seasonal differences in the weights with which they initiated the trials. Daily feed consumption didn't show significant differences neither between seasons nor between sexes. However, we observed differences in weight gain by males between seasons and during the autumn trial, the weight gain was higher for males. Rhea behavior also varied seasonally. Males and females spent more time preening and resting than walking and feeding during autumn, the opposite occurred in winter. The males had a higher tendency towards walking than to feeding, the females showed the opposite in autumn. Analyzing the feed intake, weight gained and the time spent on feeding we hypothesized that males are more efficient for feeding. This analysis allowed us to observe there are nutritional issues that can be explained from a behavioral point of view. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High post-release mortality of captive greater rheas reintroduced into the wild might be mitigated with antipredator training that helps released individuals recognize their predators. We analyzed whether captive-bred greater rheas conserve antipredator behavior, and evaluated the efficiency of antipredator training by recording survival after reintroduction into the wild. Training involved 12 individuals and consisted of a stimulus representing the natural predator (taxidermized puma) paired to an aversive stimulus (simulated capture). The control stimulus consisted of an innocuous object (chair) that was not paired to the aversive stimulus. Thirty and 60 days after the last training session, we presented the trained and control individuals (nine untrained individuals) to the predator stimulus, which was not paired to the aversive one. All of the greater rheas showed vigilant and running behaviors in the presence of the predator model. Trained individuals did not discriminate between a predator and a non-predator stimulus but they recognized the predator up to 2 months later. Survival was nil 8 months after release. However, only one individual was killed by a puma, whereas the remaining individuals died due to dog attack and poaching. Training did not increase survival of reintroduced greater rheas because of the failure to consider other potential predators, such as dogs or humans. Therefore, captive breeding might have affected greater rheas' behavior by preventing them from recognizing man as a predator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Greater Rhea is a bird with a high reproductive potential because of its high degree of adaptation to rural environments. It is a polygamous bird found in the south-central region of Brazil. This study aimed to verify the quantity and weight of eggs produced by 60 adult Rhea americana from a farm and to correlate them with the temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall in a Brazilian region at 25° S. One thousand and four eggs from a commercial farm were analyzed during the breeding season of the animals over four years. The egg laying frequencies and average weight of eggs were divided into interval class of ten according to the Sturges ratio. In addition, the data were fitted to a Weibull distribution. Overall, analysis of the years found a 113.7 day reproductive season for Rhea americana , and egg laying took place on 72.6% of days when the minimum average temperature reached 14.8 and the maximum average 20.8 °C. It was concluded that the environmental variables had influenced reproduction; the best conditions for egg laying in this species occurred at a temperature of 17.1 °C, relative humidity of 79.8%, and rainfall of less than 11.3 mm per day. Lower temperatures resulted in better reproductive performance, while higher rainfall and temperatures resulted in decreased egg laying and egg weight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Para pesquisa de Salmonella spp. foram coletadas amostras de fígado e conteúdo cecal de 70 emas (Rhea americana) abatidas no Rio Grande do Sul - Brasil. Uma colônia morfológica e bioquimicamente compatível com Salmonella spp., isolada de uma amostra de fígado, foi sorotipada como Salmonella Anatum. Considerando-se o alto potencial zoonótico deste microrganismo, destaca-se a relevância do controle microbiológico efetivo em frigoríficos que abatem espécies silvestres, assim como no produto final.In aiming to investigate the Salmonella spp. presence in one slaughterhouse in Rio Grande do Sul - Brazil, liver and cecum samples from 70 Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) were collected. One Salmonella-like colonie was serologically typed and identified as Salmonella Anatum. Considering the high zoonotical potential of this microorganism, an effective microbiological control of wild animal slaughterhouses and the final product is needed.

Highlights: [•] Model estimates the weight of Rhea americana at a resolution of 1 day based on an individual perspective. [•] Season, photoperiod, behavior, consumption and weight at the beginning of the breeding season are considered in the model. [•] Males and females reach a maximum weight after the winter solstice. [•] Maximum and minimum weights attained depend of the consumption rates interval width. [•] We observed that the reproductive success of males depends strongly on their body weight (energy reserves). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Chemical restraint is of great importance in the clinical practice of wildlife animals. In such, interspecific allometric scaling proposes pharmacological doses to a wide range of species, based on previously known doses for domestic animals and the target animal’s body mass. The objective was to compare chemical restraint responses in the greater rhea (Rhea americana) with conventional doses of tiletamine/zolazepam, found in the literature for the species, and with doses calculated through interspecific allometric scaling extrapolation. From the Federal University of Piauí, six adult greater rheas (Rhea americana), three males and three females, were randomly selected to be subjects in this research. All six animals were submitted to two chemical restraint protocols with tiletamine and zolazepam, per intramuscular injection in the hind limb. The first protocol was composed of doses found on the literature for the species, while the second protocol used doses calculated by interspecific allometric scaling, with the domestic dog as model animal. Heart and respiratory rates, body temperature, eyelid reflex, digital pinch and metatarsal reflex were registered along with latency and ambulation times. Results: The use of interspecific allometric scaling for chemical restraint with the combination tiletamine and zolazepam showed satisfying results, with great similarity to results obtained with conventional doses in Greater rheas. Conclusions: Literature on chemical restraint and use of tiletamine and zolazepam in rheas is scarce. Chemical restraint is of extreme importance on these animals, due to their aggressive nature and low level of domesticity. This research may further establish the interspecific allometric scaling method as a viable tool for the veterinary physician in formulating anesthetic and chemical restraint protocols for wildlife animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A ema (Rhea americana) é uma ave sul-americana do grupo das ratitas, da ordem Rheiforme, freqüentemente explorada com fins econômicos, como pecuária alternativa em países europeus e sul-americanos. No Brasil, destaca-se o Rio Grande do Sul e, em fase inicial, o Nordeste. O presente estudo objetivou descrever a morfologia das células sangüíneas em ema. Neste trabalho foram utilizados dez exemplares, desconsiderando-se idade e sexo. Foram colhidos 3mL de sangue periférico por punção da veia braquial, com seringa descartável. As amostras foram utilizadas, em parte, na confecção de extensões coradas com Leishman. Feita a análise morfológica ao Microscópio de Luz, foram observados sete tipos celulares nucleados. O eritrócito mostrou-se elíptico, com núcleo geralmente condensado, de forma elíptica; citoplasma acidófilo. O trombócito apresentou-se elíptico, com núcleo localizado em um dos pólos; citoplasma pálido. Quanto aos leucócitos, de forma arredondada, entre os granulócitos os heterófilos apresentaram-se com núcleo excêntrico, condensado, lobulado; citoplasma rico em grânulos fusiformes de coloração salmão. Os eosinófilos distinguem-se dos heterófilos pelos grânulos arredondados eosinofílicos. Os basófilos destacam-se dos outros granulócitos pelo núcleo grande e central, com grânulos citoplasmáticos específicos arredondados e fortemente basofílicos. Entre os agranulócitos, os monócitos mostraram núcleo rineforme, freqüentemente central, de cromatina frouxa, com pequenas áreas de condensação; citoplasma levemente basofílico e com vacúolos. Os linfócitos apresentaram-se variados em forma e tamanho; núcleo grande com cromatina frouxa, com alguns nucléolos; citoplasma escasso e basofílico. As células do sangue periférico de Rhea americana apresentam ao Microscópio de Luz morfologia semelhante às demais aves já estudadas.

A comprehensive overview of all the South American and Antarctic fossil records of Rheiformes and close relatives, accompanied by updated stratigraphic data, is provided here. Fossil rheas are represented by fragmentary remains of hindlimb bones and several footprints that include paleospecies, extinct representatives of the living species as well as putative ratites. To date, the oldest record corresponds to the early Eocene of Argentina, Brazil and maybe Antarctica, thus the Palaeocene antiquity of several fossil sites with rheas is no longer valid. Neogene sediments present records of the exclusively fossil taxon Opisthodactylus as well as ' Pterocnemia'. Most of the Quaternary records come from late Pleistocene-Holocene sediments from Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Bolivia, and Brazil and are represented by extinct representatives of living species. Finally, Argentina is the country with the highest number of fossil records and taxa. • The oldest record corresponds to the early Eocene of Argentina, Brazil and Antarctica. • Neogene representatives are restricted to Argentina and mainly comprises several paleospecies. • Quaternary records belong mostly to Argentina and are referred to the living representatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opportunistic yeasts and yeast-like fungi have been recognized as important pathogens in high-risk patients. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of these microorganisms in the microbiota of captive rheas and to investigate the antifungal susceptibility of the isolated strains. Isolates representing Magnusiomyces capitatus (Geotrichum capitatum, n = 11), Trichosporon mucoides (n = 11), Trichosporon asteroides (n = 5), Rhodotorula mucilaginosa (n = 4), Trichosporon asahii (n = 3), Trichosporon cutaneum (n = 3), and Trichosporon ovoides (n = 3) were obtained from the oropharynx, cloaca, and feces of 58 animals. Most of the isolates were susceptible to antifungals in vitro; however, resistance against fluconazole (n = 1) and itraconazole (n = 2) was detected among T. mucoides. This study indicates that healthy rheas can be reservoirs of opportunistic pathogens. Primary resistance to azoles in T. mucoides obtained from these animals demonstrates the potential risk to humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An individual-based model for estimating the energetic costs in Rhea americana was developed considering their sexual and seasonal differences in the behavioral activities. The model includes as variables the individual's characteristics, as well as corporal weight, the time spent on different activities, and the cost associated with each activity. We estimated the daily energetic demand of an adult rhea based on the activities individuals normally develop during postreproductive, nonreproductive, and reproductive seasons, differentiating between sexes. The time spent in each activity for one given animal was calculated from field observations of individuals and the estimations of energetic costs for each activity were obtained from specialized literature. The model built varied between sexes because males and females have different reproductive costs. Both models have the same general formulation but they differ in the cost associated with reproduction. In Greater Rheas, while males assume all of the incubation, the females only lay eggs communally in a single nest. Also the possibility that the individual reproduces or not was considered. The model does not allow to determine whether the energetic costs associated with the breeding are the reason why few individuals try to reproduce but it indicates that there is a clear difference in the daily energetic costs of individuals which reproduce and those which do not reproduce. Other activities associated with parental care posthatching, not taken into account here, would increase these differences, and would explain the low number of breeding attempts observed at wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Few data exist on the parasites of ratites, especially from regions within their natural range. It is only recently that extensive studies on the parasites of ostriches (Struthio camelus) have been published, mainly from European countries where commercial farming has expanded. Two species of ratites are native in South America: the lesser rhea also known as Darwin''s rhea (Rhea pennata) and the greater rhea (Rhea americana). Both species are considered near threatened by the IUCN and are included in the CITES’ Appendices I and II, respectively. Parasitological studies have conservation implications, as they allow us to assess the risk of transmission of pathogens from farmed ratites to wild populations. In this study 92 faecal samples from greater rheas and 55 faecal samples from lesser rheas from different localities in Argentine were analyzed to determine their gastrointestinal parasites. In greater rheas the protozoa (Balantidium coli-like and Entamoeba spp.) and helminths (Fasciola hepatica and Deletrocephalus spp.). The protozoa had not previously been cited as parasites of greater rheas in South America. Cysts and/or trophozoites of B. coli-like were found in 16.3% of the samples, while the prevalence of the remaining parasites was below 10%. Lesser rheas harbored the protozoa B. coli-like, Entamoeba spp. and Chilomastix spp. as well as F. hepatica and nematode eggs and larvae. B. coli-like cysts were found in 20.0% of the samples, while the prevalence of the other parasites remained below 5%. Some of them had not been cited as infecting lesser rheas yet. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: The rhea (Rhea americana) is a Brazilian wild bird that produce meat, leather and feathers of excellent quality. Rhea production has been increasing every day in Brazil due to many favorable conditions for breeding and there are also large native populations in various regions of the country. The incidence of parasites is a limiting factor when raising many animals, and rheas are not an exception. The occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp in captive rheas in a Brazilian zoo and Spain was described. However, little is known about cryptosporidiosis in rhea, which makes the need for further studies. Thus, this study aimed to detect Cryptosporidium parvum in rheas from the South of Brazil. Case: This study evaluated two properties located in Southern Brazil. Property A was located in Rio Rufino, Santa Catarina State, Brazil and it had 40 rheas for commercial purposes. Property B was located in Santa Maria, a small town in Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil and it had 10 rheas. Fresh fecal samples were collected and kept refrigerated from adult birds (n = 4) and chicks (n = 2) from property A, and chicks (n = 3) of three months of age from property B. Samples were analyzed by the method of direct examination, followed by centrifugal flotation with zinc sulfate. Only the centrifugal flotation technique allowed the observation of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in three adults and one chick. Fecal samples were stored in ethanol and analyzed by PCR for C. parvum, all being positive for this protozoan. Feces contaminated by C. parvum oocysts from one young rhea was used to inoculate two mice orally (BALB/c), previously confirmed protozoan free by faecal examination and PCR. Feces from inoculated mice were collected on days 1, 3 e 5 post-inoculation for analysis by the centrifugal flotation technique. After five days of inoculation all mice presented diarrhea and high numbers of oocysts of protozoan in their feces. Discussion: Cryptosporidiosis can evolve into severe diarrhea, followed by abdominal cramps, anorexia, vomit- ing, dehydration, nausea and fever in different animals. However the incubation period of this disease in rheas is unknown because this is only the third report of cryptosporidiosis in this wild bird. The Cryptosporidium spp. is an obligate parasite of vertebrates, and its colonization occurs at the periphery of the intestinal cells of the host and it may cause atrophy of these structures and enteritis, but these findings have not been described in rheas yet. The species of Cryptosporidium that are mainly reported in birds are Cryptosporidium meleagridis, Cryptosporidium baileyi and Cryptosporidium galli. In our study, the molecular analysis was performed in order to identify the protozoan, being detected the C. parvum, a zoonotic agent reported in several mammals. The rhea is wild birds with habits similar to ostriches. Already, in studies have reported the occurrence of Cryptosporidium in ostriches; however the species identified were different from that described in this study. Based on these results, we conclude that rhea may be parasitized by C. parvum, an important zoonotic parasite. Prevalence studies should be conducted in this area to estimate the role and impact of rhea as reservoirs and disseminators of this zoonotic parasite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on a study related to Greater Rheas, in which the routine physical examination, medical treatments and surgical procedures in both zoological and farm-raised settings are required to check the possibility of ratites. It informs that the ratite anesthetic events are often dangerous for the handlers of theses birds because these birds use their powerful legs and clawed feet as a defense and physical restraint. It further informs that the anesthetic combination of choice would have low volume and high potency and be reversible, with minimal adverse effects.

The tongue body of Rhea americana is triangular and partially pigmented with each caudo-lateral margin displaying a round, sub-divided lingual papilla. The tongue root is a smooth, non-pigmented tract of mucosa. The tongue body is supported by the paraglossum and distal half of the rostral projection of the basihyal (RPB), and the tongue root by the proximal half of the RPB, body of the basihyal and proximal ceratobranchials. An urohyal is absent; however, peculiar to R. americana, the caudal margin of the cricoid body displays a median projection, which may represent the remnant of the urohyal incorporated into the cricoid. The laryngeal mound is less elevated, the arytenoid cartilages are smaller than in other ratites, and the caudal margin displays pharyngeal papillae that vary in shape and number. The unique morphology of the lingual skeleton and its positioning within the tongue of R. americana, the rostral insertion of the M. ceratoglossus, the absence of the urohyal (enhanced ventroflexion) and the caudal positioning and mobile attachment of the ensheathed basihyal to the paraglossum would appear to allow independent movement of the tongue body relative to the hyobranchial apparatus. Additionally, the deeply indented base and rostral oval opening in the paraglossum limits the length of cartilage present in the midline of the tongue body. This may allow the tongue the necessary flexibility for the lingual papillae to clean the choana. The cleaning action of the tongue would occur simultaneously with the previously described role of this organ and associated structures during feeding. Thus, the so-called reduced, ancestral tongue of R. americana may be structurally and functionally more complex than previously believed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Histochemical and structural characteristics were investigated in Gastrocnemius pars interna (GN) and Iliofiburalis (IF) limb muscles of Rhea americana. The average myofibre area cross-section was greater in GN than IF muscle (p <0.001), whereas the fibre density per section was higher in IF than GN muscle. The only type of myofibre found in both the rhea limb muscles analysed in this study was fast-twitch oxidative–glycolytic fibres (FOG). Immunolabelling analysis and ultrastructural observation of myofibres confirmed the contractile and metabolic characteristics of rhea myofibres, revealing the absolute fast isoform of myosin heavy chain and the abundance of glycogen and mitochondria inside the cells, mainly in IF muscle. These findings converged with previous results on the biochemical and physicochemical characteristics of rhea meat to provide further evidence that myofibre composition substantially influences the oxidative reactions of the muscle and therefore the meat quality, but more in-depth examination is needed to establish the links between myofibre characteristics, myofibre glycogen concentration and meat stability during storage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

It is often necessary to estimate the weight that an individual may be capable of gaining depending on its degree of activity. A simple individual-based model was developed for studying the dynamics of weight in terms of daily behavior and ingestion rate. It was based on the balance between the individual's energy intake and the cost of its daily activities. Costs depend on the weight of the individual and the photoperiod, as well as on the time spent on each activity. Different combinations of ingestion rate, individual's weight, photoperiod length, and time assigned to different activities were used for simulating the weight dynamics, taking the species Rhea americana as a study case. Estimations of energetic costs of the activities were obtained from specialized literature. Using different photoperiods and individual behaviors, the model yields field metabolic rate (FMR) values in agreement with those obtained from direct measurements for other omnivorous bird species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Some models that predict the scanning pattern to maximise the probability of predator detection by prey assume sequential randomness (i.e. lengths of inter-scan intervals are independent of each other and of the length of scan events). Sequential randomness would prevent stalking predators synchronising their attacks with long inter-scan intervals. We analysed the presence of sequential randomness in the scanning behaviour of the greater rhea (Rhea americana), a large flightless bird that forages solitarily or in groups. We analysed sequences of behaviour of 40 wild rheas, foraging solitarily or in groups of 2 to 17 individuals, in two populations in eastern Argentina. We used parametric (auto and cross-correlations) and non-parametric (runs and Spearman rank correlation) tests to detect dependence among intervals. We detected the temporal dependence of inter-scan intervals in 30 of 40 behavioural series, but only 11 of 40 sequences showed consistent dependence when tested using parametric and non-parametric tests. The temporal dependence detected in some individual sequences would still be used by predators to synchronise their attacks with long inattentive periods of the prey. However, simple simulations showed that attack success would not be different from that of predators launching their attacks at the beginning of a randomly selected inattentive period of the prey. We propose that temporal dependence among the length of inattentive periods in greater rheas would be the result of simple mechanistic rules determined by the compromise between foraging and scanning behaviour, and it would be of little value to potential stalking predators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the external anatomy of the endocast of the Greater Rhea (Rhea americana, Palaeognathae), during 3 main stages of its postnatal life, and compared it with information available on other palaeognathous birds. Series of scans with spiral computed tomographies were obtained from 3 skulls of different ages (chick, juvenile and adult) of R. americana; digital 3-dimensional reconstruction was performed and brain volumes were calculated from the models obtained. Qualitative assessment of the brain anatomy of R. americana indicates a conical and ventrally located bulbus olfactorius, laterally expanded hemispherium telencephali, well-developed eminentia sagittalis, and conspicuous cerebellum and tectum mesencephali. Anatomy of the chick brain was markedly different: less lateral expansion of the hemispherium telencephali, and lesser development of the eminentia sagittalis and auricula cerebelli. Little change between chicks and adults was observed in some brain regions such as the tectum mesencephali, while the eminentia sagittalis showed great increase in size. The large size of the eminentia sagittalis coupled with its increasing development during ontogeny could reflect its importance for visual processing functions and the way these improve during growth. Finally, the brain of R. americana is similar to that of Struthio and Dromaius, but differs from that of the Tinamidae and of Apteryx, allowing recognition of 3 distinct brain morphologies among the Palaeognathae. Copyright © 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study on serum protein electrophoresis in greater rhea or Rhea americana in Brazil. The importance of serum protein electrophoresis to the physiological conditions of the animal is emphasized. Among the fractions showed by the electrophoresis are albumin, alpha and gamma. International literature reportedly show the absence of established patterns of normality for serum proteins in greater rhea. Also noted is the importance of the combined analysis of total protein and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio.

Many models using vigilance to predict the probability of detecting an approaching predator assumes that prey scanning events should be produced at random. Consequently, the length of intervals among successive scans must follow a negative exponential distribution. We analyzed the scanning behavior of the greater rhea, Rhea americana, which is a gregarious, flightless bird, in eastern Argentina. We investigated whether individual and/or collective scanning departed from random and whether this departure varied with group size. We used two simulation models based on observed scanning sequences to assess the effectiveness of vigilance on the individual and collective level when faced with an opportunistic or stalking predator. The analysis of 59 behavioral sequences of wild greater rheas foraging solitary or in groups of two to six or more individuals revealed that the inter-scan length of individual sequences significantly departed from random. In contrast, inter-scan intervals for collective vigilance were shorter than individual ones, but only fit the random expectation for groups of two and five individuals. Models showed that collective vigilance could increase the probability of detecting a predator, thereby reducing their vulnerability, independent of whether the predator uses a stalking or opportunistic approaching strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]