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Four experiments assessed the effects of simultaneous point gains and losses on human responding on a moving response button. Experiments 1 and 2 examined the effects of point loss arranged in variable‐time (VT) and variable‐interval (VI) schedules on persistence. For that purpose, a multiple schedule was in force. One component had point gains only, and the other had point gains and losses. The net reinforcement rate was equated across components by arranging greater point gains in the gains‐plus‐losses component. Increases in the speed of the moving response button disrupted responding during test sessions. No differential persistence between point‐gains and point‐gains‐and‐loss conditions was observed during Experiments 1 and 2. To ensure that point losses could function as punishers, Experiments 3 and 4 compared the effects of point loss arranged in fixed‐ratio (FR) or VI schedules on response rate and persistence. The FR and VI point loss decreased the response rate during Experiment 3 but did not produce differential persistence in Experiment 4. These results suggest that point loss decreases response rate but does not weaken persistence more than gains strengthen persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resurgence can be defined as increases in previously reinforced and subsequently extinguished target responding when conditions for an alternative response worsen. Worsening of alternative conditions, such as extinction, has been linked to relapse of clinically relevant behavior. Preclinical researchers have evaluated whether punishing target responses while differentially reinforcing an alternative response could reduce resurgence when conditions are worsened with extinction, with mixed results. In the present investigation, we systematically replicated this line of research with human participants recruited via crowdsourcing, using response cost as punishment. During Phase 1, we reinforced target responses with 100 points per delivery, exchangeable for money. During Phase 2, we reinforced alternative responses, discontinued point reinforcement for target responses, and parametrically manipulated across groups the magnitude of point loss (1, 100, 320, or 1,000 points) contingent on target responses. During Phase 3, we tested for resurgence by extinguishing target and alternative responses. Added punishment systematically decreased target responding during Phase 2 but did not influence resurgence during Phase 3. With a meta‐analysis, we compared our findings with existing research examining a range of punishers and species. The results of the meta‐analysis comport with the present findings, suggesting that the inclusion of punishment reduces target responding during DRA but, overall, has no systematic effects on resurgence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of point-loss response cost on the responding under fixed-interval (FI) schedules in humans. Responses by undergraduates produced points exchangeable for money arranged according to an FI 90-s schedule (Experiment 1) or a multiple FI 30-s FI 60-s FI 90-s schedule (Experiment 2). Following this baseline, a contingency of response cost, under which responses lost points, was introduced then withdrawn. Response rates with the response cost were lower than those during the baseline. Following termination of the response cost contingency, the final response rates were again lower than those during the baseline (Experiments 1 and 2). Such low-rate responding was not found for participants who were exposed only to no-cost FI schedules (Experiment 2). These results demonstrate an irreversible effect of response cost. Generality and implications of the findings were discussed in the context of the research in punishment and human schedule performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pica is a severe behavior disorder involving the persistent consumption of nonnutritive substances. Due to health complications and risks for fatality, designing effective behavioral treatments that are feasible for implementation by family members at home is imperative. This case report presents a parent‐conducted functional analysis and treatment evaluation of automatically maintained pica in a teenager with autism spectrum disorder. Initial treatment with a competing stimulus was effective when paired with response interruption and redirection. Although effective, this combination of treatment components required very close parental proximity and led to increases in untargeted body‐oriented pica (e.g., ingestion of skin, hair, and nails). Upon extending treatment to include the second topography of pica, both the originally targeted (object‐oriented) pica and body‐oriented pica decreased. Nonetheless, treatment effects were not sustained while fading parent proximity. The treatment was then augmented a third time with response cost. This final treatment package produced clinically significant reductions in all pica, facilitated parent proximity fading until the participant was alone, extended to their home, and maintained over a year of follow up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study examined the effects of different response-speed requirements on resistance to change. Undergraduates were exposed to a simulated scenario aiming to destroy pollution sources by clicking on moving targets. During baseline, a multiple variable interval (VI) 15 s VI 15 s was in effect. Points (100) served as reinforcers. In the Low-Speed Component, the response button moved across the computer screen at a speed of 30 % of the screen length per second. In the High-Speed Component, the response button moved across the computer screen at a speed of 60 % of the screen length per second. A VI 10 s of point loss (-95) disrupted responding during the test. Behavioral resistance was calculated as proportional changes from baseline response rates to test response rates. When the point-loss disrupted responding, greater resistance was observed in the Low-Speed Component, corroborating previous studies with other dimensions of physical requirements. • Undergraduates were exposed to a resistance to change test. • A two-component multiple schedule with different speed requirements was in force. • Point loss disrupted responding during test phases. • Greater resistance was observed in the Low-Speed Component. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four experiments assessed the effects of simultaneous point gains and losses on human responding on a moving response button. Experiments 1 and 2 examined the effects of point loss arranged in variable-time (VT) and variable-interval (VI) schedules on persistence. For that purpose, a multiple schedule was in force. One component had point gains only, and the other had point gains and losses. The net reinforcement rate was equated across components by arranging greater point gains in the gains-plus-losses component. Increases in the speed of the moving response button disrupted responding during test sessions. No differential persistence between point-gains and point-gains-and-loss conditions was observed during Experiments 1 and 2. To ensure that point losses could function as punishers, Experiments 3 and 4 compared the effects of point loss arranged in fixed-ratio (FR) or VI schedules on response rate and persistence. The FR and VI point loss decreased the response rate during Experiment 3 but did not produce differential persistence in Experiment 4. These results suggest that point loss decreases response rate but does not weaken persistence more than gains strengthen persistence., (© 2024 Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior.)

Resurgence is the return of a previously reinforced and extinguished target response when conditions worsen for an alternative response. The present experiment examined resurgence when worsening alternative conditions by introducing extinction of alternative responding, high-magnitude response-cost punishment of alternative responding, or a combination of extinction and the high-magnitude response cost. Overall, resurgence was robust under all three conditions. Resurgence with combined punishment and extinction (but not punishment alone) was greater than with extinction in isolation during the first min of testing. However, the combined manipulation did not produce greater resurgence than punishment alone. Overall, our findings did not support the conclusion that high-magnitude punishment and extinction have additive effects on resurgence. This could be due to the specific parameters of punishment used in the present study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of physical effort on the resistance to change is controversial. While some studies show that physical effort negatively affects resistance to change, others did not report this effect. We sought to examine the effects of different physical effort requirements on resistance to extinction in a systematic replication of a previous experiment. Five undergraduates pressed two spring buttons under a multiple variable-interval (VI) VI schedule during Baseline (BL). Each response that fulfilled the VI contingency and the physical-effort requirement (50 or 10 N) produced 100 points. The participants changed the total points earned for money at the end of each experimental session. During Test, participants responded in a multiple extinction (EXT) EXT schedule. We observed greater resistance to extinction in the Low-Effort (i.e., 10N) Component during most test sessions for three participants. We discuss individual differences in terms of extinction as a process and as a procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study empirically investigates the influence of information security marketing and response cost on employees' information security intention in the container shipping industry. Survey data were collected from 285 respondents in Taiwan. Exploratory factor analysis was employed to identify all the measures to be summarized in a relative set. Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to ensure every measure's construct's convergent and discriminant validity. Structural equation modeling was carried out to the proposed model in this article. The results indicate that organizational information security marketing has a positive impact on information security intention. Furthermore, this study conducted hierarchical regression to examine the moderating effects of information security awareness and information security climate. In particular, information security awareness significantly influenced the relationships between organizational information security marketing, response cost, and information security intention. Moreover, information security climate moderated the relationship between response cost and information security intention. This article concludes by discussing these theoretical and practical findings and implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study attempts to test the applicability of the theory of protection motivation (PMT) model and explores the effect of travel-related and sociodemographic factors on travel advisory compliance intention. The findings revealed that travelers' behavioral intention to follow travel advice is driven by self-efficacy, response efficacy, perceived severity, and the insignificant benefit of maladaptive behaviors. The results also indicated that female travelers and travelers who are aged 45 or above, have young child/children, have high income, prefer packaged travel, and are inclined to buy travel insurance tend to consult and adhere to travel advice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective intervention to reduce disruptive behavior. The GBG typically involves immediate stimulus presentation (e.g.., delivery of a token) following disruptions; however, experimenters have also removed tokens contingent upon disruptions. In the present study, we compared the effects of the GBG‐stimulus presentation (P) and GBG‐stimulus removal (R) on levels of disruptions in a 2nd‐grade general education classroom. In addition, we measured student prompts, teacher praise and correctives, and student and teacher preference. The GBG‐P and GBG‐R versions of the game were similarly effective in reducing disruptions. However, the teacher chose to implement the GBG‐R and the majority of students reported a preference for the GBG‐R. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of innovative technologies by employees into their workplace has been a long-standing practice. This informal introduction of technology within an organization without the organizational support or sanction is defined as "grassroots diffusion." While a plethora of research studies have focused on factors contributing to individuals' technology adoption decisions, these studies have failed to understand the factors that contribute to technology adoption and continuance usage through the grassroots diffusion process. In understanding the factors that contribute to the grassroots diffusion process, we test a model by administering a survey to full- and part-time employees who use a cloud-based storage application for work-related tasks and who work for organizations that do not formally provide and require the use of the chosen application. The results suggest that source credibility, response cost, satisfaction, and perceived usefulness have significant influence on continuance usage intention of cloud-based applications adopted through the grassroots diffusion process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study compared the reductive effects of response interruption and redirection (RIRD) and competing items (including sound‐producing and nonsound‐producing toys) on the vocal stereotypy exhibited by two children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Sound‐producing toys reduced vocal stereotypy relative to nonsound‐producing toys and RIRD reduced stereotypy and increased rates of appropriate vocalizations to a greater extent than providing competing items. These findings replicate and extend previous literature suggesting that RIRD and sound‐producing competing items are effective methods to treat vocal stereotypy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to expand on research on treatments for stereotypy by evaluating the effects of response interruption and redirection (RIRD) and response cost (RC) alone and as a treatment package on vocal stereotypy. Treatment phases included RIRD, RC, and response interruption and redirection plus response cost (RIRD + RC). The efficacy of these treatments was determined by measuring duration of stereotypy in session and during treatment intervals. Vocal stereotypy decreased in all three treatment conditions; however, when data analysis included stereotypy occurring during treatment intervals, stereotypy during the RC condition occurred at similar levels as baseline for one treatment evaluation phase for Karl and both treatment evaluations phases for Jon. We discuss implications of these findings, limitations of the current study, and areas for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study empirically investigates the influence of information security marketing and response cost on employees’ information security intention in the container shipping industry. Survey data were collected from 285 respondents in Taiwan. Exploratory factor analysis was employed to identify all the measures to be summarized in a relative set. Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to ensure every measure’s construct’s convergent and discriminant validity. Structural equation modeling was carried out to the proposed model in this article. The results indicate that organizational information security marketing has a positive impact on information security intention. Furthermore, this study conducted hierarchical regression to examine the moderating effects of information security awareness and information security climate. In particular, information security awareness significantly influenced the relationships between organizational information security marketing, response cost, and information security intention. Moreover, information security climate moderated the relationship between response cost and information security intention. This article concludes by discussing these theoretical and practical findings and implications.

Abstract This study explored the relationship between response cost and the responding maintained by free-operant schedules of reinforcement for participants with lower and higher levels of schizotypy. The ‘discounting’ hypothesis suggests that those with higher levels of schizotypy should be less sensitive to the negative consequences of their behavior. This predicts that participants with higher-schizotypy scores would have higher response levels on any given schedule, and that the effect of increasing response cost would not be as noticeable for this group. Participants responded via a computer keyboard on random interval (RI) 30-s, 60-s, and 120-s schedules of reinforcement for points (60 points), and experienced response costs of either low (1-point deduction) or high (10-point deduction) response costs. The UE subscale of the O-LIFE(B) was used to measure schizotypy levels. Response rates were higher with low-costs compared to high-costs for those with higher-UE scores, but not for those with lower-UE scores. That response cost differentially affected higher-UE scorers, suggesting that a ‘disconfirmation’ view of these data does not explain free-operant performance well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals diagnosed with intellectual disabilities often suffer from concomitant visual and hearing impairments (Kiani & Miller, 2010; Nielsen, Skov, & Jensen, 2007). This population may also refuse to wear the prescribed prosthetic devices that would improve visual and hearing impairments (Haugen, Aasved, & Bertelsen, 1995). This study investigated the effect of a treatment package of noncontingent reinforcement, response cost, and response blocking on an individual's compliance with the simultaneous wearing of eyeglasses and hearing aids. There was an observed increase in compliance while refusal of prostheses decreased, and these changes in behavior were generalized across locations and staff members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resurgence is the reemergence of a previously reinforced behavior following the extinction of an alternative behavior. Although several variables are known to impact resurgence, few studies have examined resurgence when the target response was previously punished. Results of two studies examining resurgence after punishment have been mixed. In the current study, we employed a human-operant procedure to compare resurgence following differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) with extinction and DRA with extinction and response cost. For the three participants, target responding was eliminated more rapidly and fully following DRA with response cost. Similar levels of resurgence, however, occurred following both procedures. These data provide evidence that arranging response cost during DRA facilitates suppression of target responding without affecting subsequent resurgence. The results further our understanding of the role of negative punishment in resurgence as a process and have implications for the development of clinical intervention packages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some studies have indicated that high response rate, produced by a exposition history to a FR, persist in a FI-cost. However, this is a controversial result. In studies which high response rate was observed, the FR extension history was 10 hours and in those which no persistence was seen the duration of FR ranged from 45 minutes to 3 hours. The present paper investigated the effect of the extension of history of reinforcement on behavioral persistence. Three groups of participants were exposed to different training extensions in FR (2 h 30 min; 5 h e 10 h), followed by an FI-cost. The results indicated a decrease on the response rate to most participants; when behavioral persistence happened was not correlated to history extension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An Adaptive and Cost-Based Intrusion Response System (ACBIRS) is presented in this paper. The designed system analyzes alerts from the Intrusion Detection System (IDS) and evaluates the attack cost, based on the probable damage of attacks on the protected system. Later on, a response is deployed to thwart the attack and prevent the attacker from reaching his/her goals. The proposed response selection approach is a cost-based method that considers attack features, including type of the attack, severity of the attack, value of targeted host/hosts services, and their data to prioritize alerts. Alerts will be responded with respect to their priorities. The selected responses are based on a measure called Response Merit (RM). The balance between attack damage cost, response cost together with the effectiveness of the response to countermeasure previous attacks determine the RM. In contrast to other Intrusion Response Systems (IRS), ACBIRS not only consists of the attack and response measures but also includes response feedback supervision that is proposed in this paper for the first time. ACBIRS allows responses to be adaptive in changing environments through success and failure assessment of previously deployed responses. Experiments show that ACBIRS can successfully prevent 92% of intrusions with only 3% disruption on benign traffic. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The development of inhibitory processes is disturbed in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); however, little is known about the effect of negative punishment for inhibitory performance in this population. We investigated differences in the effects of reward and punishment, developmental changes, and response inhibition between children with and without ADHD, using financial (F-FB) and non-financial (NF-FB) feedback. We conducted financial and non-financial go/no-go tasks under reward and punishment conditions with 21 boys with ADHD and 21 healthy controls (HCs), in Japan. We found group-related significant interactions between group, feedback type, and punishment (p =.013), and group, feedback type, and age (p =.009). There were significant differences in inhibitory error under F-FB only in HCs between the punishment-absent and punishment-present conditions (p =.003). In the ADHD group, age-dependent effects were found for both feedback types (p s <.01), but only F-FB effects were found in HCs (p =.008). Punishment for inhibitory control had different effects on the ADHD and HC groups. Children with ADHD respond differently to external motivation than HCs, leading to difficulties with peers or confusion among teachers and caregivers. • Inhibitory control punishment effects in ADHD sample differ from a control group. • Inhibitory control reward effects in ADHD sample do not differ from control group. • Financial feedback punishment results differed for control but not ADHD group. • Financial and non-financial feedback results in age-dependent effects in ADHD group. • Age-dependent effects in control group were present only after financial feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of incorrect or partial implementation (poor treatment integrity) on response cost are largely unknown. We evaluated reduced treatment integrity during response cost on rates of 2 concurrently available responses. College students earned points by clicking on either a black circle or a red circle on a computer screen. Experiment 1 compared 2 types of treatment-integrity failures (omission and commission errors) across 2 levels of integrity (20% and 50%). Compared to 100% integrity conditions, omission errors did not suppress responding to the same extent, and commission errors reduced target responding but also decreased rates of alternative behavior. Experiment 2 compared the effects of 20% and 50% omission errors within subjects. Implementation at 50% integrity adequately suppressed responding, but treatment effects were lost at 20% integrity. There may be a critical level at which response cost must be implemented to suppress responding, which has important implications for application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers have shown that both differential reinforcement and response cost within token economies are similarly effective for changing the behavior of individuals in a group context (e.g., Donaldson, DeLeon, Fisher, & Kahng, 2014; Iwata & Bailey, 1974). In addition, these researchers have empirically evaluated preference for these procedures. However, few previous studies have evaluated the individual effects of these procedures both in group contexts and in the absence of peers. Therefore, we replicated and extended previous research by determining the individual effects and preferences of differential reinforcement and response cost under both group and individualized conditions. Results demonstrated that the procedures were equally effective for increasing on-task behavior during group and individual instruction for most children, and preference varied across participants. In addition, results were consistent across participants who experienced the procedures in group and individualized settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We modified functional analysis procedures to include a condition in which we reinforced problem behavior by complying with a child's mands. After identifying compliance with mands as a reinforcer, we evaluated the efficacy of a token system with a response-cost contingency and incorporated discriminative stimuli to signal when mands would be reinforced. The token system with response cost effectively reduced problem behavior. Similar procedures may be beneficial when continuous adult compliance is not possible, when adults want to control when they will comply with the child's mands, or to build a child's tolerance for adult-directed situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Prenatal alcohol exposure affects inhibitory control and other aspects of attention and executive function. However, the efficacy of extrinsic reinforcement on these behaviors has not been tested. Methods Alcohol-exposed children ( AE; n = 34), children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD; n = 23), and controls ( CON; n = 31) completed a flanker task with 4 reward conditions (no reward, reward, reward+occasional response cost, equal probability of reward+response cost). Inhibitory control was tested in the no reward conditions using a 3(group) × 2(flanker type) ANCOVA. Response to reinforcement was tested using 3(group) × 4(reward condition) × 4(flanker type) analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Response time ( RT) and accuracy were tested independently. Results Groups did not differ on demographic variables. The flanker task was successful in taxing interference control, an aspect of executive attention (i.e., responses to incongruent stimuli were slower than to congruent stimuli) and the AE group demonstrated impaired executive control over the other groups. Overall, the AE group had significantly slower RTs compared to the CON and ADHD groups, which did not differ. However, reinforcement improved RT in all groups. While occasional response cost had the greatest benefit in the CON group, the type of reinforcement did not differentially affect the AE and ADHD groups. Accuracy across reward conditions did not differ by group, but was dependent on flanker type and reward condition. Conclusions Alcohol-exposed children, but not children with ADHD, had impaired interference control in comparison with controls, supporting a differential neurobehavioral profile in these 2 groups. Both clinical groups were equally affected by introduction of reinforcement, although the type of reinforcement did not differentially affect performance as it did in the control group, suggesting that reward or response cost could be used interchangeably to result in the same benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]