Search

The structure of ecological communities is thought to be mainly driven by competition processes between species. One special case of resource shaping community dynamics is the acoustic space. However, the acoustic communities have been rarely described for tropical birds. Here, we aimed at estimating acoustic competition between the iconic species Pharomachrus mocinno and the other bird species occupying the same habitat. An acoustic survey was conducted in a cloud forest in Guatemala for 17 days in six simultaneous recording sites. All species occurring in the same frequency bandwidth were identified, and the acoustic overlapping between P. mocinno and these species was estimated. Eighteen species were identified as acoustic competitors. Ecological traits and phylogenetic distance were defined for all species. The rate of acoustic competition between P. mocinno and other species was related to different ecological traits and competition for resources. The acoustic overlap was high with species competing for similar food resources and phylogenetically close species and low with predator species and phylogenetically distant species. These unique observations provide new behavioural and ecological information that might be useful for the knowledge of this species and the cloud forest.

International audience; The Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno is a rare Neotropical bird included in the IUCN red list as Near Threatened. Fragmentation of its habitat, the cloud forest, is considered as the principal threat. Two subspecies are currently recognised but genetic and morphometric studies suggested they could be considered as full species. We assessed whether male vocalisation would support a species delimitation hypothesis. We recorded in the field and downloaded from sound archives vocalisation of 57 individuals from 30 different localities distributed in 11 countries. We estimated the acoustic differences of all the Pharomachrus taxa with multivariate analyses and machine learning techniques. Our results show vocal differences between P. m. mocinno and P. m. costaricensis that could have a molecular basis, potentially due to genetic drift developed during the more than three million years of separation of P. m. mocinno (from Mexico to Nicaragua) and P. m. costaricensis (Costa Rica and Panama). We therefore suggest that P. mocinno could potentially be divided into two species. A possible separation of these taxa into two species could have important consequences for the conservation status of the Resplendent Quetzals, and redirect conservation efforts for these taxa.

Summary. Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno is endemic to montane cloud forests of Middle America. Disjunct populations in the highlands north (southern Mexico and northern Central America) and south of the lowlands of Nicaragua (Costa Rica and Panama) have been recognised subspecifically by several authorities (e.g. Ridgway 1911, Cory 1919, Dickinson & Remsen 2013, Gill & Donsker 2017), but have also been suggested to merit species status (Solorzano & Oyama 2010). We present morphometric differences in the elongated uppertailcoverts of adult males. We analysed width and length of the uppertail-coverts of 73 adult male specimens in European ornithological collections. Mean width and mean length of the uppertail-coverts were significantly greater in northern P. m. mocinno compared to southern P. m. costaricensis. Our data support a previously published proposal to treat the two taxa as species based on molecular and other morphological data.

The scientific literature lacks information regarding the incubation conditions and hatching success of the resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno mocinno). Jesus Estudillo Lopez, founder of the El Nido aviary, was the first to succeed with quetzal reproduction in captivity. Quetzals do not typically reproduce in captivity and the aim of this study was to increase fecundity through artificial incubation. Over a 3-year period (Yr1, Yr2, and Yr3), data about quetzal eggs, artificial incubation, and diet were recorded for 3 quetzal pairs (ranging from ~4-12 years old, with females ~4-8 years old). Eggs were manually collected from artificial nests and egg substitution was utilised. Quetzals can continue laying eggs up to 8 times with egg substitution. Eggs were weighed and placed into an 80 W incubator (INCA 200®, DMP Engineering, Tel Aviv, Israel) with an automatic egg turner. The eggs were incubated for 17 to 18 days at 37.2 to 37.6°C with a relative humidity of 20 to 40%. Fisher’s exact test (2-tailed, α = 0.05) was used for statistical analyses comparing the numbers of eggs hatched, infertile eggs, and eggs experiencing embryonic death for the study period. Eggs were candled on Day 3 to determine fertility by the presence of a darker area with vasculogenesis. Hatchability (%) was determined by dividing the total number of offspring hatched by the total number of eggs deemed fertile after candling. All of the eggs that did not hatch were opened at the end of the incubation period to detect early embryo death. A total of 27 quetzal eggs [mean weight (g) = 17.3, s.d. = 1.2] were incubated over 3 years, of which 10 (~37%) hatched, with 3 (30%) fledging and surviving to adulthood. Six of the eggs (~22%) suffered embryonic mortality during incubation, whereas 11 eggs were infertile (~41%). Hatchability over the study period was 62.5% (10/16). During Yr1 and Yr2 two eggs hatched each year, and compared with the 6 eggs that hatched in Yr3, a noteworthy but not significant difference was observed (Yr1 v. Yr2, P = 1; Yr1 v. Yr3, P = 0.188; Yr2 v. Yr3, P = 0.170). Embryonic death of the eggs was also not significantly different between the years (Yr1 v. Yr2, P = 1; Yr1 v. Yr3, P = 0.314; Yr2 v. Yr3, P = 0.303). However, the number of infertile eggs was significantly different between Yr1 v. Yr3 (P = 0.007) and Yr2 v. Yr3 (P = 0.003), but not Yr1 v. Yr2 (P = 1). During Yr1 and Yr2 the diet consisted of fruit (aguacatillo, banana, and papaya) and a mouse pup once a week. In Yr3 the diet was modified to include blueberry and a commercial food for Tucans (Mazuri®; https://www.mazuri.com/) and a new quetzal pair was added. The modified diet will continue to be used given that there were fewer infertile eggs. However, future research will need to be conducted to elucidate which variables specifically contribute to better hatching results. The results of this study demonstrate an assisted reproductive technique for quetzals that can benefit conservation efforts for this species.

The Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is of particular conservation concern because of its iconic status in Central American culture. This species is a secondary cavity nester and modifies abandoned woodpecker nest sites in dead tree trunks (i.e., snags). We used 11 historical nest sites, reported in 1969, from Atitlan, Guatemala and 10 recent nest sites from San Gerardo de Dota, Costa Rica to examine if a relationship exists between nest and snag height. There were significant differences between Costa Rica and Guatemala in both nest height (6.3 vs. 10 m, respectively; t-test14 = −2.49, P = 0.042) and snag height (8.1 vs. 14.0 m, respectively; t-test13 = −2.39, P = 0.033). There was no difference in nest heights relative to snag heights for Costa Rica (0.76) and Guatemala (0.77; t-test17 = −0.20, P = 0.84). One aspect of conservation efforts for this species has been placement of nest boxes to provide nesting sites for additional pairs. Our results provide a better understan...

El quetzal es un símbolo de la conservación de los bosques de niebla siempreverdes de Mesoamérica. Aquí, presentamos la descripción de dos registros obtenidos en las Montañas del Este de Chiapas, durante la estación reproductiva (abril) y no-reproductiva (agosto) de 2008. En la zona en donde se registraron estos quetzales ocurre una intensa pérdida forestal, por lo que sus hábitats reproductivo y no-reproductivo podrían estar en peligro de desaparecer en esta región.

A meditation-dream proving, yielding interesting results, was conducted with seven participants for the particularly beautiful and culturally renowned Quetzal bird that resides in the mountainous cloud forests of Central America. Secondly, two cases verify a preliminary idea for the North American game bird in the pheasant family known as the Ruffed Grouse.

The Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno is a restricted-range species occurring from Chiapas (Mexico) to Panama, generally at elevations above 1,400 m. P. mocinno is a frugivore that feeds on a variety of fruits. Listed as “Lower Risk/Near Threatened Species” and in CITES Appendix I, P. mocinno is dependent on standing dead and mature trees for breeding holes, which are only formed in primary cloud forest, even if tree stumps occur temporally in secondary growth as remnants of primary cloud forest. A population of P. mocinno in the northernmost Guatemalan mountain range (Chelemha Plot, Sierra Yalijux, Alta Verapaz) was studied in 2002 and compared with a census at the same location in 1988. Between 1988 and 2002, the number of males did not change significantly: a small increase took place from 15 to 18 individuals per 100 ha. The species’ breeding behaviour is linked to the long-term existence of primary forests such as the few remaining in highland Guatemala. Breeding success was proven and at least three juveniles from two breeding pairs were observed until the end of September 2002.

We evaluated the impacts of land-cover changes of evergreen cloud forests on the distribution of quetzals in the four mountain regions of Chiapas, Mexico. The land-cover changes were estimated comparing satellite images of 1970 and 2000. We also simulated the amount of remnant forests 50 years in the future. The past and the current distributions of quetzals were based on literature records and recent field surveys. Our results showed that in 1970 the forests occupied 973 km 2 , and in 2000, 312 km 2 , and annual loss from 3.34 to 6.85%. Our simulation suggests that 50 years from now, only one region will maintain evergreen cloud forests. In addition, we documented literature reports of 39 forests inhabited by quetzals, but in 2001 there remained 11 smallisolated forests. In order to guarantee the survival of this species, conversation efforts must be made to protect the quetzal and its habitat throughout the entire Mesoamerica region. # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Chimalapas region, in eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, holds lowland rainforests, tropical dry forests, and cloud forests typical of the Neotropics, as well as montane pine and pine-oak forests more typical of the Nearctic. Totaling more than 600,000 ha, much of the region is forested, and in a good state of preservation. The Chimalapas avifauna is by far the most diverse for any region of comparable size in the country, totalling at least 464 species in the region as a whole (with more than 300 species in the lowland rainforest) representing 44% of the bird species known from Mexico. Within the region, the humid Atlantic lowlands hold 317 species, the montane regions 113 species, and the southern dry forested lowlands 216 species. Important species present in the region include Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja and several other large eagles, Black Penelopina nigra and probably Horned Oreophasis derbianus Guans, Scarlet Macaw Ara macao, Cinnamon-tailed Sparrow Aimophila sumichrasti, Rose-bellied Bunting Passerina rositae, and Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno. The area holds immense lowland rainforests and cloud forests that rank among the largest and best preserved in all of Mesoamerica, including a complete lowland-to-highland continuum, with entire watersheds preserved more or less intact.

Postdispersal fate of seeds from Ocotea endresiana (Lauraceae), a bird-dispersed Neotropical montane tree, was studied in Costa Rica to determine the influence of seed dispersers, seed predators, and microhabitat characteristics on seedling recruitment. Particular emphasis was placed on finding naturally dispersed seeds in order to study the link between dispersal and postdispersal fate of seeds. Four species of birds (Emerald Toucanet, Aulacorhynchus prasinus; Resplendent Quetzal, Pharomachrus mocinno; Three-wattled Bellbird, Procnias tricarunculata; and Mountain Robin, Turdus plebejus) dispersed the seeds by regurgitation, and one species (Black Guan, Chamaepetes unicolor), by defecation. Most seeds (80%) were dispersed within 25 m of parent trees and under high (>92%) canopy cover. Bellbirds deposited 52% of the seeds they dispersed under habitual song perches in standing dead trees on the edges of treefall gaps >25 m from parent trees. In contrast, the other four species dispersed only 6% of the seeds...

After more than 50 years, the rare autochthonous species, Capsicum lanceolatum, of Mesoamerica was rediscovered in a virgin remnant of the Guatemala cloud forest, Mario D'Arcy Avila Biotopo el Quetzal, a nature reserve for the resplendent quetzal. At all previous known locations C. lanceolatum was extirpated. Specific variation in flower and seed traits of the C. lanceolatum from the Biotopo el Quetzal population suggests it is a heretofore undiscovered population of this species. The usefulness of nature preserves in saving designated and cryptic species is illustrated.

Weird Birds . By Chris Earley. 2014. Firefly Books. (ISBN 9781770852969). 64 pp. Paperback with full color photographs. $9.95. Weird Frogs . By Chris Earley. 2014. Firefly Books. (ISBN 9781770853614). 64 pp. Paperback with full color photographs. $9.95. Weird Birds and Weird Frogs by Chris Earley are a delightful introduction to some weird and wild avian and amphibian creatures. Weird Birds features beautiful full-color photographs of 59 birds, including the very serious Eurasian Eagle-Owl and the regal Resplendent Quetzal. Weird Frogs includes …

As habitat loss continues, natural protected areas will become islands in human-modified landscapes; maintenance of functional communities and ecosystems will depend on properly designed protected areas. We demonstrate that incorporating regional habitat linkages that allow for seasonal migrations of intratropical resident species must be a major design criterion for establishing protected areas. Using radiotelemetry, we monitored the seasonal movements of one such migrant, the Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), a large, frugivorous bird, one of many tropical residents known to migrate altitudinally within Mesoamerica. Based on three years of data we determined that quetzals followed a complicated local migration that linked four montane life zones. Using this species as an indicator revealed that the configuration of the Monteverde reserve complex in the Tilaran Mountains in west-central Costa Rica lacked sufficient habitat distribution to conserve montane biodiversity. On the basis of these results, we propose that the three-step process proposed by Soule and Simberloff (1986) for estimating minimum sizes of reserves be amended to include a fourth step: The critical habitats used throughout the annual cycles of target or keystone species must be identified and adequately protected. Natural protected areas can be considered adequately designed only when sufficient area with a full complement of ecologically linked habitats is included. A medida que la perdida de habitat continua, las areas naturales protegidas se iran transformando en islas dentro de paisajes modificados por las actividades humanas; el mantenimiento de comunidades y ecosistemas funcionales dependera de areas protegidas correctamente disenadas. En el presente estudio demostramos que la incorporacion las conecciones entre habitats de una misma region que permitan las migraciones estacionales de especies residentes intratropicales debe ser un criterio de diseno de gran importancia para el establecimiento de areas protegidas. Por medio del uso de radiotelemetria, supervisamos los movimientos estacionales de uno de tales migrantes, el Quetzal Resplandeciente (Pharomarchrus mocinno), un ave frugivora grande y uno de los tantos residentes tropicales que migran en forma altitudinal dentro de Mesoamerica. En base a tres ano de datos determinamos que los quetzales siguieron una migracion local complicada que conecto cuatro biomas montanos. El uso de esta especie como indicador, revelo que la configuracion del complejo de reservas de Monterverde en las Montanas Tilaran, en el centro-oeste de Costa Rica carecia de una distribucion de habitat suficiente para conservar la biodiversidad montana. Sobre la base estos resultados, proponemos que el proceso en tres etapas para estimar los tamanos minimos de las reservas propuesto por Soule y Simberloff (1986) sea modificado de tal forma que incluya una cuarta etapa; los habitats criticos usados a lo largo de los ciclos anuales de las especies clave deben ser identificados y protegidos adecuadamente. Las areas naturales protegidas solo pueden ser consideradas como disenadas adecuadamente cuando se incluya un area suficiente que comprenda un complemento de los habitats conectados ecologicamente.

SummaryWe documented habitat use by the Resplendent QuetzalPharomacrus mocinno, a large frugivorous bird that breeds in cloud-forests in the highlands of Central America, to assess the adequacy of protection afforded to regional biodiversity by the Monteverde reserve complex, a protected natural area that includes most of the highland forests of the Tilarán mountain range in western Costa Rica. Our results demonstrated that this relatively large (20,000 ha) protected natural area does not adequately protect the area's biodiversity. Through the use of radio-telemetry, we identified the areas on the Pacific slopes that are most critical to altirudinally migrating Quetzals. These forest patches are subject to deforestation and degradation and are rapidly becoming further isolated from other remaining forest. The possibility of the local extirpation of the Quetzal, through continued habitat loss on the Pacific slopes, presents an unusual dilemma for the region because the species is the major attraction for the Ideal tourist industry which now includes over 80 businesses and annually generates over US$5 million in local revenue. Therefore, its extirpation would seriously affect regional economic stability. In order to protect the Monteverde Quetzal population, we propose a regional conservation plan that depends on participation of local landowners to protect their remaining forest fragments and allows for the development of corridors to connect critical habitats as the focus of a regional conservation effort. While the ecological significance of the structure of corridors per se, versus other possible formats, is still being debated, we have selected the corridor format primarily because it is relatively easy for landowners to grasp the concept and the necessity for continuity of the corridor network. This recognition provides an important incentive for participation across property boundaries, promoting cooperation in a group effort rather than as isolated actions. Success of this cooperative plan will provide an example for grass-roots participation in buffer-zone management strategies elsewhere in the Neotropics.

The resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is an endemic Mesoamerican bird species of conservation concern. Within this species, the subspecies P. m. costaricensis and P. m. mocinno, have been recognized by apparent morphometric differences; however, presently there is no sufficient data for confirmation. We analyzed eight morphometric attributes of the body from 41 quetzals: body length, tarsus and cord wing, as well as the length, wide and depth of the bill, body weight; and in the case of the males, the length of the long upper-tail cover feathers. We used multivariate analyses to discriminate morphometric differences between subspecies and contrasted each morphometric attribute between and within subspecies with paired non-parametric Wilcoxon test. In order to review the intraspecific taxonomic status of this bird, we added phylogenetic analysis, and genetic divergence and differentiation based on nucleotide variations in four sequences of mtDNA. The nucleotide variation was estimated in control region, subunit NDH6, and tRNA Glu and tRNA Phe in 26 quetzals from eight localities distributed in five countries. We estimated the genetic divergence and differentiation between subspecies according to a mutation-drift equilibrium model. We obtained the best mutation nucleotide model following the procedure implemented in model test program. We constructed the phylogenetic relationships between subspecies by maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood using PAUP, as well as with Bayesian statistics. The multivariate analyses showed two different morphometric groups, and individuals clustered according to the subspecies that they belong. The paired comparisons between subspecies showed strong differences in most of the attributes analyzed. Along the four mtDNA sequences, we identified 32 nucleotide positions that have a particular nucleotide according to the quetzals subspecies. The genetic divergence and the differentiation was strong and markedly showed two groups within P. mocinno that corresponded to the quetzals subspecies. The model selected for our data was TVM+G. The three phylogenetic methods here used recovered two clear monophyletic clades corresponding to each subspecies, and evidenced a significant and true partition of P. mocinno species into two different genetic, morphometric and ecologic groups. Additionally, according to our calculations, the gene flow between subspecies is interrupted at least from three million years ago. Thus we propose that P. mocinno be divided in two independent species: P. mocinno (Northern species, from Mexico to Nicaragua) and in P. costaricensis (Southern species, Costa Rica and Panama). This new taxonomic classification of the quetzal subspecies allows us to get well conservation achievements because the evaluation about the kind and magnitude of the threats could be more precise. Rev. Biol. Trop. 58 (1): 357-371. Epub 2010 March 01.El Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) es un ave endémica mesoamericana de interés en conservación. Dentro de esta especie, se reconocen a las subespecies P. m. costaricensis y P. m. mocinno por aparentes diferencias morfométricas, sin embargo, hasta el momento no hay datos suficientes que las confirmen. En este estudio, analizamos ocho rasgos morfométricos de 41 quetzales: la longitud del cuerpo, del tarso y de la cuerda alar, así como la longitud, el ancho y la profundidad del pico, el peso corporal, y en el caso de los machos, la longitud de las plumas cobertoras supracaudales. Usamos análisis multivariados para discriminar diferencias morfométricas entre las subespecies. Comparamos cada rasgo morfométrico dentro y entre las subespecies a partir de comparaciones pareadas con el análisis no-paramétrico de Wilcoxon. Realizamos análisis filogenéticos, y de diferenciación y divergencia genéticas fundamentados en las variaciones nucleotídicas de cuatro secuencias de ADNm con la finalidad de revisar el estatus taxonómico de esta ave. La variación nucleotídica fue estimada en la región control, la subunidad NDH6 y los tRNA Glu y tRNA Phe en 26 quetzales de ocho localidades de cinco países. Estimamos la divergencia y la diferenciación genética entre subespecies con base en el modelo de equilibrio mutación-deriva. Obtuvimos el mejor modelo de mutación nucleotídica siguiendo el procedimiento implementado en el programa Model test. Construimos las relaciones filogenéticas entre las subespecies con máxima parsimonia y máxima verosimilitud usando PAUP, así con estadística Bayesiana. Los análisis multivariados discriminaron dos grupos morfométricos, y los individuos se agruparon de acuerdo con la subespecie a la que pertenecen. Las comparaciones pareadas entre las subespecies mostraron fuertes diferencias en la mayoría de los rasgos analizados. En las cuatro secuencias de ADNmt identificamos 32 posiciones nucleotídicas que tienen un nucleótido particular de acuerdo con la subespecie de quetzal. La divergencia genética y la diferenciación fueron marcadas y mostraron dos grupos dentro de P. mocinno que correspondieron a las subespecies de quetzales. El modelo seleccionado para nuestros datos fue el TVM+G. Los tres métodos filogenéticos usados recuperaron dos clados monofiléticos robustos correspondiendo a cada una de las subespecies. Consideramos que nuestros resultados muestran una significativa y real división de P. mocinno en dos grupos genéticos, morfométricos y ecológicos. Además de acuerdo con nuestras estimaciones, el flujo génico está interrumpido entre las subespecies desde al menos hace tres millones de años. Por ello, proponemos que P. mocinno sea dividido en dos especies independientes: P. mocinno (especie norteña, desde México hasta Nicaragua) y P. costaricensis (especie sureña, Costa Rica y Panamá). Esta nueva clasificación de las subespecies de quetzal permitirá mejores logros en su conservación, dado que la evaluación de la clase y magnitud de las amenazas serán más precisas.

In this study, we analyzed the genetic variation of quetzals ( Pharomachrus mocinno ) throughout their geographic distribution to determine conservation targets. This species is found in patchy isolated cloud forests from Mexico to Panama. A multidimensional scaling and UPGMA analysis of a 286 RAPD fragment set resolved 3 genetic groups: cluster 1 (Mexican localities), cluster 2 (Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador) and cluster 3 (Panama). The mean genetic diversity estimated by the Shannon index was 0.38, 0.22 and 0.32, for clusters 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The genetic differentiation among clusters was statistically significant. The highest percentage of genetic variation (70.86%) was found within populations using an AMOVA analysis. Our results suggest that within the quetzal species, there are 3 genetic groups that should be considered as independent conservation targets and included in a global Mesoamerican conservation program.

The results of this study can be used by planners and landowners to set reforestation and habitat management programmes (Chaps. 30, 32 and 33). The feasibility of planting certain tree and shrub species must yet be determined by means of systematic research in plant nurseries. Also, energetic forests can be created in order to supply fuel wood for local demand, nevertheless discouraging the use of trees which are important for the quetzal and other frugivorous species (e.g., Chap. 30).

The Northern Central American Highlands have been recognized as endemic bird area, but little is known about bird communities in Guatemalan cloud forests. From 1997 to 2001 a total of 142 bird species were recorded between 2 000 and 2 400 masl in cloud forest and agricultural clearings on Montaña Caquipec (Alta Verapaz, Guatemala). The bird community is described based on line transect counts within the forest. Pooling census data from undisturbed and disturbed forest, the Gray-breasted Wood-Wren (Henicorhina leucophrys) was found to be the most abundant species, followed in descending order by the Common Bush-Tanager (Chlorospingus ophthalmicus), the Paltry Tyrannulet (Zimmerius vilissimus), the Yellowish Flycatcher (Empidonax flavescens), the Ruddy-capped Nightingale-Thrush (Catharus frantzii), and the Amethyst-throated Hummingbird (Lampornis amethystinus). Bird communities in undisturbed and disturbed forest were found to be similar (Sørensen similarity index 0.85), indicating low human impact. Of all recorded species, ~27% were Nearctic-Neotropical migratory birds. The most abundant one was the Wilson’s Warbler (Wilsonia pusilla). The Montaña Caquipec is an important area for bird conservation, which is indicated by the presence of four species listed in the IUCN Red List (Highland Guan Penelopina nigra, Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno, Pink-headed Warbler Ergaticus versicolor, Golden-cheeked Warbler Dendroica chrysoparia), and 42 Mesoamerican endemics, of which 14 species are endemic to the Central American Highlands. The results presented here will be useful as baseline data for a long-term monitoring. Rev. Biol. Trop. 53(3-4): 577-594. Epub 2005 Oct 3.Las alturas del norte de Centroamérica han sido reconocidas como región de aves endémicas, pero se conoce poco sobre las comunidades de aves en bosques nubosos de Guatemala. De 1997 a 2001 se han detectado 142 especies de aves entre 2 000 y 2 400 msnm en el bosque nuboso y áreas agrícolas en la Montaña Caquipec (Alta Verapaz, Guatemala). El patrón de la comunidad de aves se describe por medio de censos en transectos de línea. Combinando los datos de censos en bosque prístino y bosque perturbado se concluyó que Henicorhina leucophrys es la especie más abundante, seguida en orden descendente por Chlorospingus ophthalmicus, Zimmerius vilissimus, Empidonax flavescens, Catharus frantzii y Lampornis amethystinus. El índice de Sørensen de 0.85 entre bosque prístino y bosque perturbado indica un impacto relativamente bajo de la población humana local. El ~27% de todas las especies encontradas fueron aves migratorias neárticas, siendo la más abundante Wilsonia pusilla. La Montaña Caquipec es un área importante para la conservación de aves, lo cual es indicado por la presencia de cuatro especies incluidas en la Lista Roja de IUCN (Penelopina nigra, Pharomachrus mocinno, Ergaticus versicolor, Dendroica chrysoparia) y de 42 especies endémicas de Mesoamérica, de las cuales 14 son endémicas de las alturas norteñas de Mesoamérica. Estos resultados servirán como base para un monitoreo a largo plazo.

Using birds as an exemplary animal group, the human influence on diversity, community structure and nutrition guild composition is examined in tropical montane cloud forest in Guatemala. Human impact is measured as differences in diversity and body mass in both natural forest and secondary forest (as a consequence of slash-and-burn agriculture). A comparison of these measures is made between the two different habitat types. In terms of species richness, α-diversity (punctual diversity) is higher in used habitats than in natural forest. However, the mean body mass per species is lower in secondary growth than in natural forest. The latter implies that the nutritional conditions of birds in natural forest are qualitatively better than in secondary vegetation. The remaining natural forests in the study area in the region of Alta Verapaz are highly fragmented and have been reduced to less than 50 % of its original cover. Some species are considered to be extinct (e.g. Oreophasis derbianus Mountain Guan) or are threatened to vanish from the study area like, e.g., Penelopina nigra Highland Guan, Pharomachrus mocinno Resplendent Quetzal. Both of these species are dependent on natural forest, the latter because of breeding holes. Both species will become extinct when the last natural forest is gone, which with the current mean national deforestation rate in Guatemala, is within 120 years. The study area is located in the mountain cloud forest zone of the Sierra Yalijux, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala (15°28′N,90°20′W) between 1,900 and 2,550 m. The investigations were conducted within a 102 ha study plot, including both habitat types with equal spatial dimensions. Birds were censused with several standardised methods. The main factor for fragmentation and deforestation — i.e., habitat loss — is slash-and-burn agriculture by peasants. The Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno was used as an example to explain the limiting factors of the regional populations and estimate their viability.

Researchers at the Miguel Alvarez del Toro Regional Zoo (ZooMAT), in Chiapas, Mexico, have successfully bred a resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) chick in captivity for the first time. Quet? zals were sacred in Mayan culture; they symbolized freedom, precisely because they would die when caged. Included in Appendix 1 of the CITES convention, the fruiteating quetzal, with its impressive red, blue, and green plumage, is endangered by habitat degradation, hunting, and trafficking. "This achievement is the result of many years of research", explains Carlos Guichard, ZooMAT director (Tuxtla, Chiapas). "In the 1980s, studies were carried out in the Chiapas mountains to understand the biology and behavior of the quetzal in the wild", he continues. "Following this work, the bird's habitat was protected by the estab? lishment of the 100000-ha Triunfo A newly hatched quetzal chick.

Monte Verde, Costa Rica, has recently become a popular tourist destination among North American, European, and Costa Rican ecotourists desiring to experience rain and cloud forests. The resplendent quetzal, a migratory bird with colorful plumage and mythical connotations, figures as a central icon and spectacle in Monte Verde's cultural economy of tourism. This article explores how the practices of producing and consuming quetzals are embedded in and reflect contested interpretations of forest landscapes, authentic experiences, and environmental histories and futures. As spectacles around which touristic experiences are often organized, quetzals are invested with nostalgia and hopes for the future. By focusing on the various social contexts in which quetzals are produced, viewed, and explained, this article examines some of the processes by which transnational and local discursive and capitalistic formations, increasingly organized under the banner of ecotourism, claim the authority to fix the meanings, histories, and futures of Monte Verde landscapes and nature more generally. (Ecotourism, Costa Rica, environmental activism, tourist spectacles) Several weeks after he began a new job as a maintenance worker at a small cloud-forest preserve in the Tilaran highlands of Costa Rica, Manuel Azofeifa (a pseudonym) invited me to walk with him through the forest. Located in the Monte Verde region, one of Costa Rica's most renowned sites of nature conservation and ecotourism since the 1970s, the Reserva Santa Elena where we took our walk was a relatively new reserve, opening in the early 1990s. Manuel explained that as a career cattle rancher he had paid relatively little attention to the establishment and expansion of forest preserves and the growing numbers of foreign tourists visiting this remote mountainous region in which he and his family have lived and farmed for 50 years(2) He decided to work at this preserve not so much because he wanted a change of career or to participate in the tourism economy, but out of a desire to support his son's high school, which had acquired the cloud-forest preserve in 1995 to fund its daily operations. We carried machetes and our lunch, as is typical on long walks like this, but Manuel viewed this walk differently from others he had taken, and not simply because he had not been in this forest since it was formally protected in the late 1970s, or because he now worked here as an employee. The shift in Manuel's approach to this walk was reflected in the camera he carried, a small point-and-shoot that he rarely used except for special occasions like parties or family trips. This was the first time he had taken a camera with him into a forest. Manuel explained that he brought his camera because he wanted to take a picture of a waterfall he had heard was in a remote section of the forest to show his wife and daughters, since they would never come this far into the forest. When we found the waterfall he posed for a picture in front of it, donning my cowboy-style hat, for he said he wanted to look like he was on an aventura (adventure). Walking away, Manuel talked excitedly about waterfalls, saying that they are particularly what Costa Ricans enjoy when they visit forest preserves. Then, on hearing the call of a resplendent quetzal, he hurried ahead to see it. When I caught up to him, he was pointing his camera up a tree at the quetzal and making noises to get its attention. He snapped a photograph, turned to me, and announced, "You know, five years ago, I might have shot at this bird with a gun, probably just for the hell of it. But, you see, now I shoot it with my camera. " ECOTOURISM AND THE CONTESTED GROUNDS OF NATURE A characteristic act of tourism is to insist on difference and mark it by various techniques of observation, including photography (Taylor 1994:15). That Manuel judged the waterfall and the quetzal as different enough to mark with photographs suggests that for him these sights stand outside his ordinary, workaday experience (Cohen 1974; Graburn 1989; Urry 1990:3). …

The Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) is an altitudinal migrant that nests in high elevation cloud forests and migrates toward lower areas during the summer rainy season. It has been suggested that its migratory movements are related to the abundance of ripe Lauraceae fruits. We studied the quetzal diet during two consecutive years, as well as changes in fruit abundance of the plant species on which the bird feeds at El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, southeastern Mexico. The quetzal was observed feeding on 32 plant species; of these, 24 are new records in its diet. We chose 20 of these 32 species and studied their fruit phenology for two years in order to describe the relationship between fruit and quetzal abundance. Our results showed that quetzal abundance in the breeding area was correlated with the total number of fruiting species, whereas the correlation between quetzal abundance and the number of fruiting Lauraceae species was only marginal. Additionally, a correlation test showed that quetzal abundance was marginally correlated with total fruit availability (total no. of fruits per month); however, the correlation between quetzal abundance and the number of fruits in the Lauraceae was not significant. Our results suggest that the dynamics of food resources may be playing a major role in the quetzal's migratory behavior. Knowing the bird's diet may aid in characterizing the type of habitat adequate for its conservation. Our observations in this respect suggest that conservation efforts to preserve this bird species should concentrate on the protection of its habitat, including both breeding and nonbreeding (migration) locations.

Handclaps evoke impressive chirped echoes from the unusually narrow limestone staircases of the Mayan pyramid at Chichen Itza, located in Mexico’s northern Yucatan. This highly conspicuous acoustical feature, apparently ignored in the archaeological literature, may provide important clues to Mayan cultural practices of the time. Inspection and ray acoustic modeling provide a simple physical explanation for the chirped echo—the ‘‘picket fence effect’’ due to periodic sound reflections from staircases. The authors argue that chirped echoes were always present, and are not spurious artifacts of reconstruction. It is suggested that the Maya must have noticed and may have exploited his acoustical feature in ceremonies at their sacred site. Is the chirped echo an acoustical design flaw, or intentional acoustical engineering by a perceptive stone age people? The author suggests that the simple acoustical engineering required for intentional design falls well within Mayan capabilities. In seeking a cultural motivation for intentional design, it is speculated that the chirped echo may be intended to imitate the primary call of the Mayan sacred bird, the resplendent quetzal. Recorded sound samples show that the two sounds do bear uncanny resemblance. The quetzal hypothesis also provides a credible explanation for the unusually short staircase treads.

The diet and feeding habits of the Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus m. mocinno) were studied in the cloud forest of the "El Triunfo" Biosphere Reserve, Chiapas, Mexico. Adults fed on fruits of 15 plant species, six of which (40%) are members of the family Lauraceae; 63 percent of the fruit items consumed were from these species. Other fruit items consumed were from species belong to the families Theaceae (8.3%) and, with 4.2 percent each: Myrsinaceae, Araliaceae, Verbenaceae, Solanaceae, Myrtaceae, Melasomataceae, Moraceae and Clusiaceae. Quetzals took fruits on the wing from distal branches of trees. Feeding activity was highest in the late afternoon hours. Average sex ratio in feeding groups was 1:1. The diet of chicks consisted of fruits (24%) and insects and small vertebrates (76%) during their first 10 d, and 72 percent fruits and 28 percent animal food from then until fledging. Large fruits increased and soft bodied animals decreased significantly in the chick's diet between these two periods. Of the plant species fed to the chick 37.5 percent belonged to the family Lauraceae. Of the total fruit items, 50 percent belonged to this family, in contrast to higher proportions reported for 1? m. costaricensis. In the overall chick's diet, Lauraceous fruit made up 19 percent, close to that reported for 1? m. costaricensis. Other bird species that took fruit from the same trees as the quetzals fed from the inner branches while perching and fed mainly on non-lauraceous fruits, with small seeds. Our results support the view that the quetzal is a specialized frugivore, feeding mainly on fruits of the family Lauraceae. Quetzals may play an important role as seed dispersal agents especially during the non-breeding season, when they move up to 3 km/d, adding up to several dozen km in a season.

Ocotea pharomachrosorum (Lauraceae), of the Ocotea helecterifolia-group from Costa Rica and Panama, is described here. Within the large genus Ocotea Aublet (Lauraceae), this new species belongs to the Ocotea helecterifolia-group. This group contains numerous borderline cases between the genera Ocotea, Nectandra, and Phoebe (Rohwer, 1991; 1992 in litt.). However, its outer tepals are glabrous inside, the inner ones have only a few papillae and the anthers are fleshy and smooth, not papillate, nor hood-shaped; these are all Ocotea-like characters. Although this species was collected for the first time several years ago, the material was insufficient to describe it. This collection was treated by Rohwer (1991) as Ocotea sp. A and by Burger & van der Werff (1991) as "a species of uncertain position." Ocotea pharomachrosorum Gomez-Laurito, sp. nov. TYPE: Costa Rica. San Jose: Dota, San Gerardo, Finca de Efrain Chacon, 10?32'20"N, 83?49'05"W, 2,100-2,200 m, 10 feb. 1992, J. Gomez-Laurito, J. A. Lopez, A. Mora & W. Barillas 12160 (holotype, CR; isotypes, F, MO, K, USJ). Figure 1. A speciebus quas Rohwer ad species e turma helecterifolia ascripsit combinatione indumenti densissimi crispati cum basibus foliorum inaequilateralibus et nervis lateralibus utroque 3-5 distinguenda. Trees 8-12 m tall, 30-40 cm D.B.H., trunk straight, terete; bark grayish with transverse lenticels; inner bark yellowish; wood hard. Leafy branchlets densely grayish tomentulous with curled and matted hairs. Leaves alternate, distant; petioles 2.53.5 cm long; lamina 9-19 cm long, 5-7.5 cm broad, narrowly ovate to ovate-elliptic or ovate-oblong, tapering to a short-acuminate apex, obtuse to rounded at the base, the sides of lamina unequal at the base with the sides 2-6 mm distant on the petiole, drying stiffly chartaceous or subcoriaceous, the upper surface glabrous and lustrous but with hairs above the slightly elevated proximal major veins, tertiary venation slightly elevated, lower surface densely yellowish gray or whitish gray tomentulous, the hairs minute (0.1-0.3 mm) and curved, with 3-5 major secondary veins on each side, the basal secondaries often strongly ascending, central secondaries arising at ngles of 35?-500. Young leaves very dense brownish tomentose. Inflorescences solitary and axillary to distal leaves or undeveloped leaves near the shoot tip, paniculate with short lateral branches subtended by conspicuous (4-7 mm) oblong bracts, peduncle, rachis and bracts densely brownish gray omentulous. Flowers white, delicately scented; 6 te als 4-5 mm long, 3 mm wide, externally pubescent, internally scarcely papillose; 9 fertile stamens, 6 outer, 3 inner, subsessile, thick, fleshy, smooth with hairs at base of filaments; glands sessile, 0.6 mm long. Ovary ovoid, glabrous. Style 1 mm long; stigma capitate. Cup 8-13 mm long, obconic, redtinged. Berry ellipsoid, 3.5 cm long, up to 2 cm wide, green to purple at maturity. This new species and other Lauraceae are an important food source of one of the most beautiful birds in Central America: the resplendent quetzal (Pharomachros mocinno), hence the name. Ocotea pharomachrosorum is easily distinguished by its dense gray tomentum of branchlets and undersides of leaves; unusual long petioles to 3.5 cm long; subcoriaceous leaves with only 3-4 pairs of major veins and sides of the lamina unequal at the base. Moreover, the young leaves and shoots are conspicuously dense brownish tomentose. It is presently known from the Pacific slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica, and adjacent Chiriqui highlands in Panama, from 1,600 to ca. 2,300 m elevation. Paratypes. Same locality as type: Julio Sdnchez s.n. (CR, USJ). PANAMA. CHIRIQUI. Vic. of Boquete, Finca Collins, El Velo, 12 Mar. 1963 (US) Steam et al. 1985. Acknowledgments. I am grateful to William C. Burger (Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, U.S.A.) and Jens G. Rohwer (Institut fur Systematische Botanik und Pflanzengeografie, Heidelberg, Germany) for critical readings of the manuNOVON 3: 31-33. 1993. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.11 on Mon, 17 Oct 2016 05:33:49 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Resplendent Quetzals (Pharomachrus mocinno) are typically termed "specialized" fruit-eating birds, although there are few data describing the breadth of their diet or the characteristics of the fruits they select. In fact, there is no general consensus about the meaning or consequences of being a fruit specialist. In the lower montane forests at Monteverde, Costa Rica, quetzals feed on a minimum of 12-18 species of fruits at most times of the year and on an annual total of at least 41 species. Although their diet includes the watery, small-seeded berries of many second-growth plants, they depend mostly on the large drupes of about 18 species in the laurel family (Lauraceae). The phenologies and habitat distributions of the Lauraceae appear to dictate the timing and direction of seasonal movements by quetzals. Mutual dependence and, possibly, general coevolution between quetzals and the lauraceous trees whose seeds they disperse are suggested by the birds' morphology, distribution, behavior, and life history. Nestling quetzals are brought entire fruits as early as the second day after hatching. Thereafter, they consume gradually increasing amounts of fruit, but, even immediately before they fledge, most of their diet consists of insects, snails, and lizards. Brooding drops off rapidly by the time chicks are 9 days old. Considerable variation in brooding duration, parental sex roles, and nestling diet exists between nests, however, and apparently between clutches. Adults take far less time to deliver fruits to nestlings than to deliver insects or lizards, which reflects the relative ease of "capturing" ripe fruits (as opposed to animal prey) during the breeding season. The male parent delivered significantly more insects and food items in general than did the female at a first-clutch nest but not at a second-clutch nest. Several Central American montane reserves have been established to protect populations of quetzals, the national symbol of Guatemala and an important tourist attraction throughout the Isthmus. Unfortunately, the reserves tend to be too small and to include only a limited representation of critical habitats. If other Central American quetzal populations are similar to Monteverde's, the birds must migrate to different habitats as the availability of ripe fruits fluctuates between seasons or years. Once reserves become isolated by deforestation, they will fail to prevent local extinction of quetzals.