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Due to the pandemic, undergraduate course ECE 340: Constructivist Teaching with Young Children, moved to an online, asynchronous format. The in-person methods I used, group work, in-class activities, and discussion, could not be directly transposed online as might lecture and recitation. Toward the term's end students expressed appreciation for the degree of choice they had in assignments, examples of programs in text and video, and repeated opportunities to design centers and instruction. Some declared a greater sense of confidence as educators. The comments suggested that the shift into an asynchronous provision of the course had been effective. This study is an investigation of the robustness of this response and the influence of course design on students' acquisition of constructivist teaching approaches.

This article focuses on the use made by Finnish vocational upper secondary students, including their opinions, with regard to the voluntary-based aspects and activities of a compulsory mathematics online course. In particular, the study investigated whether the vocational field affects students' views and actions. There were altogether 313 students from six vocational fields participating in this study, but the number of students who responded to the feedback questionnaires related to the different opportunities and activities varied. Of the opportunities offered, the repetition opportunity was the most used and the most useful from the students' point of view. Almost 90% of the respondents ended up, either voluntarily or under guidance, taking advantage of the repetition option. The education video was watched by almost 60% of the students responding to the questions related to the video. Students had a positive attitude towards the effects used in the educational video, the length of the video, and the level of explanation of theory. Approximately half of the respondents who were offered an additional practice opportunity took advantage of this, and the opportunity was seen as quite useful. There were only minor, if any, statistically significant differences between the vocational fields regarding the use of the opportunities offered and the opinions related to them. This research will assist in developing online teaching of mathematics at vocational upper secondary level and will also offer guidelines for the development of online education more generally.

This study examined K-12 public school teachers' classroom technology integration practices during the COVID-19 pandemic emergency remote teaching began. Survey data were collected from 76 K-12 teachers in public schools in a Southcentral U.S. state. The data include teachers' general beliefs about technology, their self-efficacy about technology integration, the support they received, and how frequently they implemented various types of technology-integrated activities. General linear models predicted the factors affecting the frequency of implementing technology-integrated activities as a whole group and between K-6 and 7-12 grade levels. The models showed different prediction impacts between grade levels. A significant impact of self-efficacy and interaction was found between general beliefs and support on implementation frequency for K-6 but not for 7-12. Moderation analysis was performed to further examine the relationship between support and general beliefs on self-efficacy. A simple slope analysis showed positive effects of self-efficacy among teachers who had low-to-average levels of general beliefs on self-efficacy. These findings argue for the importance of support for early-grade teachers with lower levels of general beliefs about technology integration.

Edgenuity is a one of a multitude of digital support tools for instruction and intervention. In 2019,a School District in the South began using Edgenuity -- a digital intervention platform focused on grade and credit recovery. This current study evaluated Edgenuity to determine its effects on students learning and the associated cost. For the 2022-2023 school year, a total of 2371 students entered the platform and participated in approximately 5447 courses, and students spent a total of 177,022 hours on the platform. Quantitative methodologies were utilized to examine the effects of each current program. Data collected included individual student data including grade, school, courses attempted, overall course grade, time spent on platform, length of enrollment as well as assessment data from the Florida Reporting System for SY2023. Additional data were collected on students' graduation measures, including credits earned over time, GPA over time, and graduation requirement status (such as concordant scores) over time. Based on the quantitative results, it appears that the utilization of Edgenuity is associated with student growth higher than standard student growth measures, even when students in the platform are scoring significantly lower than their academic peers. Students completing coursework in Edgenuity had higher growth in both ELA, d = 0.12**, and math, d = 0.12*. When considering just academic outcomes, Edgenuity has an ROI of 12%, however when adding credits earned to the measurement, the ROI is between 22% (current) and 53% (potential) depending on how many students currently in progress on their courses complete the course and pass their exam with the requisite grade. While the direct cost of Edgenuity ($49.31 per course) is very high in comparison to other digital interventions Edgenuity still provides a return on the investment made and provides the further benefit of allowing students to earn a credit and correct their path towards graduation when they otherwise would not have had the opportunity. It is recommended that schools continue the use of the Edgenuity platform.

The study examines the interactive functions of gesture repetitions as a specific form of interpersonal synchronization in argumentative decision-making processes of peers (1-6 graders). Based on a collection of 13 instances, gesture repetitions are investigated in the process of collaboratively co-constructing arguments. Drawing on multimodal interaction analysis, a description is provided of how gestures are aligned and laminated with other multimodal resources, such as body posture and gaze, into multimodal repetitions during the co-construction of both arguments and counterarguments. The study illustrates the way in which multimodal repetitions serve to mark coherence between the participants' turns and contribute to the argument. As the multimodal resources are highly synchronized with each other, multimodal repetitions also make the collaboration of specific participants publicly visible to all interactants, thereby attaching more importance to the sharedness--and persuasiveness--of the constructed argument. The analysis therefore focuses on both depictive and pragmatic gestures that are conceived as parts of multimodal gestalts (Mondada, 2014), and describes different trajectories of co-constructions that entail interactively successful as well as unsuccessful examples.

Both participation and argumentation (OECD, 2022) are important keywords in educational contexts. While participation is seen as a crucial prerequisite for education and collaborative learning in general, argumentation as a discursive practice serves to convey and negotiate--also school-specific--knowledge. This paper explores repetition in argumentative events as a technique of establishing--or even hindering--participation in terms of alignment and affiliation. It can serve as a strategy for participation by signalling responsiveness and thematic coherence--and thus inclusion. At the same time, however, studies show that repetition can also signal contradiction and rejection--and thus exclusion. So far, we know little about how exactly these functional differences are produced--especially in younger children. Therefore, the paper explores how children use repetition as a resource for negotiating participation in argumentative events. Using authentic data in the form of observations and transcriptions of audio and video recordings from child-child-interactions of 15 Hebrew- and 31 German-speaking children aged 3-6 years, we identify oral argumentative events and investigate different forms of repetitions and their respective relevance for enabling participation. Our results show that, on the one hand, minimal and partial repetitions are used by the children in an inclusive way, creating closeness between the participants. On the other hand, children use complete repetitions more as an excluding technique, displaying misalignment and disaffiliation, in order to challenge and mock each other. The findings suggest that this line of research has significant potential to provide new insights into the formation of social relationships between peers, into the prevention or establishment of participation, which itself is a prerequisite for joint learning, as well as insights into the acquisition of argumentative competence.

Word learning depends on attention -- children must focus on the right things at the right times. However, autistic children often display restricted interests, limiting their intake of stimuli during word learning. This study investigates how category interests influence word learning in autism and neurotypical development. Autistic and neurotypical children matched on receptive vocabulary used a touch-screen computer to learn novel words associated with animals (high-interest stimuli) and objects (neutral-interest stimuli) via fast mapping. Response accuracy and speed were examined at referent selection, 5-minute retention, and 24-hour retention. Both groups identified meanings of novel words associated with unfamiliar animals and objects via mutual exclusivity with comparable accuracy. After 5 minutes, autistic children retained animal names with greater accuracy than neurotypical children. Autistic children showed a greater increase in their accuracy between 5-minute and 24-hour retention and outperformed neurotypical children across conditions after a night's sleep. Across groups, 24-hour retention was predicted by number of target word repetitions heard at referent selection, indicating a relationship between fast mapping input and retention. However, autistic children were slower to respond correctly, particularly in the animal condition. For autistic children, superior word learning associated with high-interest stimuli was relatively short-term, as sleep appeared to consolidate their memory representations for neutral-interest stimuli. Although these results demonstrate that fundamental word learning mechanisms are not atypical in autism, slower response times may signal a speed-accuracy trade-off that could have implications for naturalistic language acquisition. Our findings also indicate favourable environmental conditions to scaffold word learning.

This study compares the costs of a school-based online credit recovery model to more traditional teacher-directed credit recovery using rigorous cost analysis methods. Findings indicate that differences in the comprehensive costs for online and teacher-directed credit recovery classes are small. However, cost differences across the two models of specific types of resources are substantial and statistically significant. Online credit recovery classes resulted in higher district-incurred costs largely due to the purchase of online curricula and required technology. The online model incurred lower opportunity costs to teachers stemming from less out-of-class time devoted to grading, lesson planning, and developing course materials.

Employment of appropriate study strategies is crucial for academic success. Previous findings on whether use of specific strategies is related to academic performance in real educational settings were inconsistent, and their participant samples were largely restricted to undergraduate students. The current study recruited a large sample (i.e., 4,331 participants) of elementary school students to explore the association between use of specific strategies and academic performance by using multilevel linear regression models, in which two potential confounding variables (i.e., SES and gender) are controlled for. The results showed that after controlling for SES, gender and other study strategies, use of spaced study, rereading and help-seeking positively related to academic performance in elementary school students. However, use of self-testing, highlighting/underlining, note-taking, summarizing, making diagrams, making study plans and studying with friends did not positively correlate with academic performance in elementary school children. Instructors and parents are suggested to encourage children to study by using the effective study strategies, and teach them how to maximize the benefits of these strategies.

Purpose: Despite the clinical utility of sentence production and sentence repetition to identify language impairment in autism, little is known about the extent to which these tasks are sensitive to potential language variation. One promising method is strategic scoring, which has good clinical utility for identifying language impairment in nonautistic school-age children across variants of English. This report applies strategic scoring to analyze sentence repetition and sentence production in autistic adolescents and adults. Method: Thirty-one diverse autistic adolescents and adults with language impairment (ALI; n = 15) and without language impairment (ASD; n = 16) completed the Formulated Sentences and Recalling Sentences subtests of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals--Fifth Edition. Descriptive analyses and regression evaluated effects of scoring condition, group, and scoring condition by group on outcomes, as well as group differences in finiteness marking across utterances and morphosyntactic structures. Results: Strategic and unmodified item-level scores were essentially constant on both subtests and significantly lower in the ALI than the ASD group. Only group predicted item-level scores. Group differences were limited to: percent grammatical utterances on Formulated Sentences and percent production of overt structures combined on Sentence Repetition (ALI < ASD). Discussion: Findings support the feasibility of strategic scoring for sentence production and sentence repetition to identify language impairment and indicate that potential language variation in finiteness marking did not confound outcomes in this sample. To better understand the clinical utility of strategic scoring, replication with a larger sample varying in age and comparisons with dialect-sensitive measures are needed.

Purpose: This systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis examines the accuracy of sentence repetition (SR) tasks in distinguishing between typically developing (TD) children and children with developmental language disorder (DLD). It explores variation in the way that SR tasks are administered and/or evaluated and examines whether variability in the reported ability of SR to detect DLD is related to these differences. Method: Four databases were searched to identify studies that had used an SR task on groups of monolingual children with DLD and TD children. Searches produced 3,459 articles, of which, after screening, 66 were included in the systematic review. A multilevel meta-analysis was then conducted using 46 of these studies. Multiple preregistered subgroup analyses were conducted in order to explore the sources of heterogeneity. Results: The systematic review found a great deal of methodological variation, with studies spanning 19 languages, 39 SR tasks, and four main methods of production scoring. There was also variation in study design, with different sampling (clinical and population sampling) and matching (age and language matching) methods. The overall meta-analysis found that, on average, TD children outperformed children with DLD on the SR tasks by 2.08 SDs. Subgroup analyses found that effect size only varied as a function of the matching method and language of the task. Conclusions: Our results indicate that SR tasks can distinguish children with DLD from both age- and language-matched samples of TD children. The usefulness of SR appears robust to most kinds of task and study variation.

Responses are slower in two-choice tasks when either a previous stimulus feature or the previous response repeats than when all features repeat or all features change. Current views of action control posit that such partial repetition costs (PRCs) index the time to update a prior "binding" between a stimulus feature and the response or to resolve processing conflicts between retrieved and current features. However, violating a heuristic that stimulus feature repetitions and changes "signal" repetitions or changes of the previous response, respectively, may also contribute to such costs. To determine whether such relational codes affect performance, we compared PRCs in two- and four-choice tasks. While a stimulus feature repetition signals a response repetition in both tasks, a stimulus feature change signals a specific alternative response only in a two-choice task. Consistent with the signaling hypothesis, we observed similar complete repetition benefits in the two- and four-choice tasks but smaller complete change benefits in the four-choice task. We also investigated whether the smaller complete change benefit in the four-choice task--that is, the signaling effect--varies with the validity of the signal in the previous trial. In all four experiments, we observed a larger signaling effect after trials in which stimulus changes or repetitions corresponded to response changes or repetitions, respectively, than after trials in which stimulus changes did not correspond with response changes. We conclude that signaling contributes to PRCs, which indicates that bindings include relational codes.

This study aimed to examine how the levels of physical fidelity of controllers (high, mid and low) and task repetitions (four trials) influence undergraduate students' perceived task load and performance in an immersive virtual reality (VR)-based simulation. The simulation was developed using the Unity 3D engine. VR controllers were developed to reflect a real power tool in three fidelity levels: high (most realistic: weight and tactile engagement), mid (tactile engagement without weight) and low (control group: only controller). The tasks were designed to reflect complexities with four working postures: no walking & standing up, no walking & bending over, walking & standing up and walking & bending over. Thirty-six healthy undergraduate male students participated in the study. Participants were instructed to complete motor tasks accurately. Audio feedback (drill sound) and haptic feedback (vibration) were activated for three groups when the controller and a screw made contact. Each participant used all three fidelity controllers and repeated the four tasks in a counterbalanced order to account for order effects. The results of a one-way repeated measures MANOVA indicated that two dimensions of task load were significantly different among the three physical fidelity conditions. Also, task completion time, inaccurate operation time and inaccurate counts were significantly shorter when four tasks were repeated. The study findings provide design implications for VR-based training experiences for future workforce development.

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, online credit recovery (OCR) was the most popular use of distance learning in high schools in the United States. With high course failure rates during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, high schools have turned to OCR to help students recover lost credit. This study examined the potential consequences of increasing OCR enrollment at the school level using administrative data from North Carolina and found that increasing OCR enrollment is associated with higher rates of passing previously failed courses but with diminishing returns after about three-quarters of students who failed courses enrolling in OCR. Consistent OCR enrollment increases over four years is associated with higher graduation rates. Contrary to prior research, this study finds no evidence that school-level OCR enrollment increases are associated with lower test score proficiency rates. Using pre-pandemic data to help inform post-pandemic decision making, the results suggest that increasing OCR enrollment might address increased pandemic-induced course failure rates by expanding opportunities to re-earn course credit, but this would not necessarily translate to higher graduation rates.

Repeated reading is an intervention with strong evidence for improving students' oral reading fluency. However, little research has examined the use of this intervention outside of traditional school contexts. School closures due to COVID-19 forced schools and teacher preparation programs to create new approaches to evidence-based reading interventions that could be delivered online. This study examined the effects of a repeated reading fluency intervention delivered synchronously online. A single-case repeated acquisition design examined the intervention's effects on three upper elementary students' correct word reading fluency, defined as the number of words read correctly per minute. Visual analysis indicated repeated readings had a positive impact on all students' reading fluency. Future research should examine whether this intervention can improve students' comprehension when delivered online.

Context information can guide cognitive control, but both the extent and the underlying processes are poorly understood. Previous studies often found that the congruency sequence effect (CSE) is larger when perceptual context features (e.g., modality and format) of task-related distractors and targets repeat compared to change. However, it is unclear whether control adjustments can also be contextualized by more abstract stimulus features and/or by features of task-unrelated stimuli. The present study addressed this issue using a novel context manipulation in a confound-minimized prime-probe task. In Experiment (Exp.) 1, the modality (visual and auditory) of the distractor and target either repeated or changed. Critically, in Exp. 2, the distractor and target modality always switched, but the cross-modal intensity (brightness and loudness) could either repeat (e.g., bright [right arrow] loud) or change (e.g., bright [right arrow] soft). A larger CSE for context repeats (vs. changes) was observed in Exps. 1 and 2, indicating that both concrete (modality) and abstract stimulus features (cross-modal intensity) can contextualize control adjustments. Exps. 3 and 4 demonstrated that the CSE was not reliably affected when the context manipulation concerned a prior signal or a simultaneous background stimulus. Thus, task-related, but not task-unrelated, concrete and abstract stimulus features contextualize control adjustments. Moreover, distributional (delta plot) analyses of present and previous data revealed that the confound-minimized CSE and its contextual modulation reflect adjustments in the strength of cognitive control rather than in its timing. Overall, the present study provides new insights into how context information interacts with cognitive control to optimize decision making under conflict.

Purpose: Nonword repetition (NWR) has been described as a clinical marker of developmental language disorder (DLD), as NWR tasks consistently discriminate between DLD and typical development (TD) cross-linguistically, with Cantonese as the only reported exception. This study reexamines whether NWR is able to generate TD/DLD group differences in Cantonese-speaking children by reporting on a novel set of NWR stimuli that take into account factors known to affect NWR performance and group differentiation, including lexicality, sublexicality, length, and syllable complexity. Method: Sixteen Cantonese-speaking children with DLD and 16 age-matched children with TD repeated two sets of high-lexicality nonwords, where all constituent syllables are morphemic in Cantonese but meaningless when combined, and one set of low-lexicality nonwords, where all constituent syllables are nonmorphemic. Low-lexicality nonwords were further classified on sublexicality in terms of consonant-vowel (CV) combination attestedness (whether or not CV combinations in nonword syllables occur in real Cantonese words). Results: Children with DLD scored significantly below their peers with TD. Effect sizes showed that high-lexicality nonwords and nonword syllables with attested CV combinations offered the greatest TD/DLD group differentiation. Nonword length and syllable complexity did not affect TD/DLD group differentiation. Conclusions: NWR can capture TD/DLD group differences in Cantonese-speaking children. Lexicality and sublexicality effects must be considered in designing NWR stimuli for TD/DLD group differentiation. Future studies should replicate the present study on a larger sample size and a younger population as well as examine the diagnostic accuracy of this NWR test.

Atypical habituation to repetitive information has been commonly reported in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) but it is not yet clear whether similar abnormalities are present in Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1). We employed a cross-syndrome design using a novel eye tracking paradigm to measure habituation in preschoolers with NF1, children with idiopathic ASD and typically developing (TD) children. Eye movements were recorded to examine fixation duration to simultaneously presented repeating and novel stimuli. Children with NF1 showed a bias for longer look durations to repeating stimuli at the expense of novel stimuli, and slower habituation in NF1 was associated with elevated ASD traits. These findings could indicate aberrant modulation of bottom-up attentional networks that interact with the emergence of ASD phenotypes.

This was an exploratory cross-sectional study comparing 45 children with ASD to 24 typically developing drug-naïve controls, group-matched on age, sex, and body mass index. Objective data was obtained using the following: an ambulatory circadian monitoring device; saliva samples to determine dim light melatonin onset (DLMO): and three parent-completed measures: the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL); the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R); and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ28). The CBCL and RBS-R scales showed the highest scores amongst poor sleepers with ASD. Sleep fragmentation was associated with somatic complaints and self-injury, leading to a higher impact on family life. Sleep onset difficulties were associated with withdrawal, anxiety, and depression. Those with phase advanced DLMO had lower scores for "somatic complaints"; "anxious/depressed" state; and "social problems", suggesting that this phenomenon has a protective role.

Background: Although existing studies have shown that both repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and music therapy have advantages in the treatment of non-fluent aphasia, the efficacy of the combination of these two methods remains to be investigated. Aims: To investigate the clinical efficacy of low-frequency rTMS combined with music therapy on language function and depression in patients with non-fluent aphasia after stroke. Methods & Procedures: A single-blind parallel randomised controlled trial was conducted. Sixty patients (mean duration = 93.78 days) with non-fluent aphasia after stroke were randomly divided into a traditional therapy group (n = 20), a music therapy group (n = 20) and a combined therapy group (n = 20, 1 Hz). The language function and depression were evaluated before and 3 weeks after treatment with the Chinese version of the Western Aphasia Battery scale, Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination scale and Stroke Aphasic Depression Questionnaire Hospital Version scale. Outcomes & Results: The combined therapy group was significantly better in all outcomes than the traditional therapy group and was significantly better in depression than the music therapy group. The music therapy group was significantly better in repetition and depression than the traditional therapy group. Language improvement was positively correlated with depression improvement. For adverse events, only two patients in the combined therapy group showed slight dizziness during rTMS treatment and their symptoms improved after rest. Conclusions & Implications: Our preliminary randomised controlled study indicates that low-frequency rTMS combined with music therapy is feasible and safe in improving language function and depression in non-fluent aphasia patients after stroke.

Background: Dialogic reading (DR) is an effective shared reading technique based on the prompts-evaluate-expand-repeat (PEER) sequence, which fosters children's language development. This study examines the effects of its elements by comparing shared reading with prompts with minimal feedback (PMF) and PEER. Methods: This study included 364 typically developing Chinese kindergarteners and used a randomised control trial design. The children and their parents were divided into three groups, namely, the PMF, PEER and control groups. The children were pre- and post-tested on their language skills and reading interest measures before and after the intervention. Results: Results showed that after a 12-week intervention, the children in the PMF group outperformed those in the control group in terms of receptive vocabulary, character reading and listening comprehension. Meanwhile, the children in the PEER group outperformed those in the PMF and control groups not only in terms of the above measures but also in their expressive vocabulary and reading interest. Conclusions: These results highlight the contribution of parents' questions and the additional benefits of their systematically corrective feedback on kindergarten children's language and reading interest development. This study supports the literature on cognitive engagement theory related to young children's individual language and reading interest development through interactive parent-child DR activities.

This study investigated the effects of assisted oral reading on EFL learners' oral reading rates and took into account repetition times, passage features (length and type), and language proficiency. Forty-nine students from a university of technology took part in a 27-week oral reading program. Teaching assistants were assigned to assist individual students' oral reading and offered immediate feedback for their performance. Students read a total of 27 texts, one per week. The texts involved 9 short- and 9 long-conversational texts, and 9 monologic texts. Each text was read six times and the time for each oral reading was recorded. The collected data were analyzed with HLM. The dependent variable was students' oral reading rates, and three fixed factors were repetition times, text features, and students' language proficiency. The results showed that students' oral reading rates significantly improved with times of repetition increased. Text length (shorter or longer) did not affect students' oral reading rates but text types (conversational vs. monologic) did. Higher-level students read significantly more fluently than those in the lower-level. Implication of the study results was discussed.

This paper provides a longitudinal analysis of the understanding of repetition patterns by 24 Spanish children ages 3, 4 and 5, through representation and the type of justification. A mixed quantitative and qualitative study is conducted to establish bridges between algebraic thinking and computational thinking by teaching repetition patterns in technological contexts. The data are obtained using: (a) participant observations; (b) audio-visual and photographic records; and (c) written representations, in drawing format, from the students. The analysis involves, on the one hand, a statistical analysis of the representations of patterns, and on the other, an interpretive analysis to describe the type of justification that children use in technological contexts: "elaboration", "validation", "inference" and "prediction or decision-making". The results show that: (a) with respect to the representation of patterns, errors decreased by 27.3% in 3-to-5-year-olds, with understanding and correct representation of repetition patterns gaining prominence in more than 50% of the sample from the age of 4; (b) on the type of justification used, it is evident that in 3-and-4-year-olds, "elaboration" predominates, and at 5, progress is made towards "validation". We conclude that it is necessary to design learning sequences connected with theory and upheld through practice, and that foster the active role of the teacher as a promoter of teaching situations that help spur the beginning of computational and algebraic thinking.

Research has shown that second language (L2) learners generally lack multiword expression knowledge, and L2 researchers and practitioners have tried various techniques to assist L2 learners to acquire it more efficiently. This study adopted an under-researched technique-- repeated oral reading--to enhance the retention of high-frequency multiword items by 62 EFL college students divided into experimental (n =38) and control (n =24) groups. Fifteen unfamiliar multiword items comprising only known individual words were selected through a pre-test based on a theme-based text. All students received a formal instruction first, followed by the experimental group orally reading the text six times under a time constraint. A two-week delayed post-test was used to test students' retention of four dimensions of multiword knowledge: aural forms and aural meanings, and written meanings and use. Except for use, the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in the other three dimensions. Four fixed factors (oral reading speed, prior vocabulary knowledge, dimensions of multiword knowledge, and the number of words per item) were analyzed via GLMM. Results showed three factors had significant effects on retaining multiword items except oral reading speed. Based on the results, pedagogical implications are discussed and suggestions are made.

Resit exams allow students who have failed a subject a second chance to demonstrate achievement of the academic standards required for program progression. Contrary to previous studies in this field, this paper reports on the value of resit exams with a comprehensive discussion of the lessons learned from the implementation of resits in different conditions and is intended to assist educators to decide whether such exams are a useful and fair way to promote student progression. The data were obtained from student academic performance metrics, a survey with a total of 444 students, six student focus group interviews with a total of 29 students, and three individual staff interviews. The study suggests the benefits of resit exams as a tool to improve student learning outcomes and progression, especially with the close relationship between resit exams and threshold and high-stakes assessment requirements. While the psychological and progression benefits of resit exams were acknowledged by the participants, concerns were expressed about some aspects of the way the school offered the resits and the issue of inequality. Alternatives were proposed to avoid unnecessary failure and promote learning.

This study examined the relationship between secondary school students' problem-solving success and perceptions using a relational survey model. This study investigated 378 students (212 girls and 166 boys) in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades between 11 and 14 years old using the convenience sampling method. The problem-solving inventory for children, routine and non-routine problem tests, and problem evaluation rubric were used for data collection. Descriptive and inferential analyzes were utilized. The results indicated that students tended to avoid the problem-solving process. Variables of trust, self-control, and avoidance regarding problem-solving perceptions significantly predicted students' success in solving routine and non-routine problems.

The present study investigates the impact of meaningful input on L2 learners' vocabulary use and their fluency in oral performance (immediate and repeat tasks), as well as whether the effects are mediated by learners' prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory. Ninety university students learning English as a foreign language were randomly assigned to one of three groups: input (N = 29), input repetition (N = 32), and no-input (i.e., baseline group) (N = 29). The input group watched L2 videos prior to performing an immediate oral task, whereas the input repetition group watched the same videos not only before but also after the immediate oral task. The no-input group only performed the oral tasks without watching the videos. The three groups repeated the same oral task after two days. Results did not show a significant effect of task repetition, input, and input repetition on learners' lexical use and fluency. However, the fluency and lexical complexity in learners' L2 speech can be predicted by their receptive vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity to some extent.

Adopting a conversation analytic framework, this paper examined the delay and potential indeterminacy of teacher's repetition as an other-initiated repair (OIR) strategy, which took place at the third turn of the Initiation-Response-Evaluation (IRE) sequence in one-on-one tutoring sessions. Tutor-tutee interactions for a Korean secondary student were transcribed and analyzed along with notes used in the class. Data showed that when repetition was used as an OIR strategy, it was delayed and inaccurate. The learner was sometimes unsure whether the teacher's repetition constituted a repair initiation regarding her prior turn. Furthermore, the learner could not successfully recognize which part of the repeated phrase should be repaired. Prior studies have confirmed that repetition can promote learners' interactions rather than simply highlighting error while also giving learners an opportunity to correct their errors themselves. However, the analysis in this paper suggests a potential risk associated with using repetition as an OIR strategy at feedback turn in instructional discourse.

This research investigates whether there are relationships between the choices of concept reiterations and interlocutors' orientations, between the choices of concept reiterations and contexts of communication, and between affective connotations of paraphrase, interlocutors' orientations and contexts of communication. The data were collected from four different contexts, namely, the Hotel, Forum, Court, and Debate corpora. The results suggested no clear relationship between interlocutors' orientations and the choices of concept reiterations but the contexts of communication were likely to influence choices of reiterations, especially in the use of repetitions and the purposeful shift of paraphrase connotations to achieve the professional goals of communication in the Hotel and Court corpora which are the contexts where interlocutors are bound by their social roles.

This research is a pre-experimental study conducted with the following objectives: 1) to investigate the efficiency of using podcast in developing English listening skills for; 2) to compare the achievement of English listening comprehension before and after the repetition technique using podcast; 3) to examine the satisfaction with the intervention of using the repetition technique with podcast to enhance English listening skills for comprehension. The sample group consisted of 41 second-year students. The selection of the sample group was done through purposive sampling, whereby the sample group had to meet the language proficiency standards of level A2 or B1 according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The experimental period spanned 11 weeks, with a total of 22 hours. The research instruments were podcast clips, practice exercises, pre and post-tests, and satisfaction questionnaire. The research findings revealed that the efficiency of using podcast in developing English listening skills for comprehension exceeded the predefined criterion of 80/80, with a score of 88.51/86.59. Moreover, when comparing the scores for the post-test English listening skills for comprehension of students using the intervention of using the repetition technique with podcast to enhance English listening skills for comprehension, it was found to be significantly higher than the average pre-test scores at a statistical significance level of 0.05. Overall, the students expressed a high level of satisfaction with the intervention of using the repetition technique with podcast to enhance English listening skills for comprehension. The average satisfaction score was 4.50.

Objective: To assess the feasibility of a brief, self-guided, Internet-based version of the mantram repetition program (MRP) for undergraduate students, a population with mental health challenges and high reliance on Internet-based resources. Participants: Undergraduate students (n = 60) receiving course credit had a mean age of 20.66 years and primarily identified as female (84.5%) and Asian (55.9%). Methods: MRP was taught through four video modules. Participants completed module 1 at timepoint 1 (T1), modules 2-4 one week later (T2), and questions about their practice one week following (T3). Results: Most (88.3%) participants completed all four video modules and 76.7% completed T3 questions. At T3, 80.4% of participants endorsed using mantram repetition, practicing 4.46 days/week and 3.26 times/day on average. Conclusions: A self-guided, Internet-delivered MRP is feasible for undergraduate students. Further research is needed to establish its utility for managing psychological challenges in college students.

Background: Children with speech sound disorders (SSD) form a heterogeneous group, with respect to severity, etiology, proximal causes, speech error characteristics, and response to treatment. Infants develop speech and language in interaction with neurological maturation and general perceptual, motoric, and cognitive skills in a social-emotional context. Purpose: After a brief introduction into psycholinguistic models of speech production and levels of causation, in this review article, we present an in-depth overview of mechanisms and processes, and the dynamics thereof, which are crucial in typical speech development. These basic mechanisms and processes are: (a) neurophysiological motor refinement, that is, the maturational articulatory mechanisms that drive babbling and the more differentiated production of larger speech patterns; (b) sensorimotor integration, which forms the steering function from phonetics to phonology; and (c) motor hierarchy and articulatory phonology describing the gestural organization of syllables, which underlie fluent speech production. These dynamics have consequences for the diagnosis and further analysis of SSD in children. We argue that current diagnostic classification systems do not do justice to the multilevel, multifactorial, and interactive character of the underlying mechanisms and processes. This is illustrated by a recent Dutch study yielding distinct performance profiles among children with SSD, which allows for a dimensional interpretation of underlying processing deficits. Conclusions: Analyses of mainstream treatments with respect to the treatment goals and the speech mechanisms addressed show that treatment programs are quite transparent in their aims and approach and how they contribute to remediating specific deficits or mechanisms. Recent studies into clinical reasoning reveal that the clinical challenge for speech-language pathologists is how to select the most appropriate treatment at the most appropriate time for each individual child with SSD. We argue that a process-oriented approach has merits as compared to categorical diagnostics as a toolbox to aid in the interpretation of the speech profile in terms of underlying deficits and to connect these to a specific intervention approach and treatment target.

Civic, social and political education (CSPE) is a mandatory citizenship education subject taken during the junior cycle in the Irish post-primary curriculum. This article looks at the historical development of the subject from its first incarnation as civics to its recreation as CSPE and then to its recent move into the Wellbeing Programme. The study investigates the challenges of teaching CSPE and how those challenges relate to being a pedagogic subject, as identified by 206 CSPE teachers and based on a thematic analysis of their responses to survey questions. The findings note challenges related to the low-status of the subject and making it relevant to students. The status issues are linked to a disconnect between the conceptualisation and realisation of the subject, a lack of teacher agency and issues regarding its position in the Wellbeing Programme. The article concludes that CSPE lacks the internal ability to overcome these problems and gain increased status.

As institutions cope with the difficult task of managing scarce resources to support student learning, college writing centers, like other student services, need to be able to articulate and, at times, quantify the benefits they offer the populations they serve. This study examined outcomes associated with visiting the writing center at one American community college in a southern town. Using binary logistic regression, the researchers compared the effects of writing center visitation on the probability of passing and/or earning an A for students enrolled in introductory English and psychology courses, while accounting for other student-level covariates including prior GPA, SES, and minority status. Results indicated that writing center visitors were significantly more likely to pass their English courses and were more likely to earn As in both subjects. Further, the level of visitation was a significant predictor of student outcomes, particularly in English courses, with students who visited the most frequently experiencing a significantly increased likelihood of both passing and earning As. Overall, these results suggested that writing center visitation was meaningfully associated with students' success in these courses at this institution, after accounting for additional individual-level variables commonly identified as predictors of educational outcomes.

The chatbot has been increasingly applied and investigated in education, along with many review studies from different aspects. However, few reviews have been conducted on chatbot-assisted learning from the pedagogical and implementational aspects, which may provide implications for future application and investigation of educational chatbots. To fill in the gaps, we reviewed relevant studies from the pedagogical and implementational aspects. Forty-six articles from Web of Science and Scopus databases were screened by predefined criteria and analysed step by step following the PRISMA framework. The finding showed diversified learning activities (i.e. exercise, instructions, role-playing activities, collaborative product design, independent writing, storytelling/book-reading, digital gameplay, and open-ended debates) that chatbots could support through presenting knowledge, facilitating practices, supervising and guiding learning activities, and providing emotional support. Chabot-assisted learning was applied in 14 disciplines, mostly in-class for one session, and had overall positive outcomes from academic and affective aspects. Based on the review results, we proposed a RAISE model of effective chatbot-assisted learning: Repetitiveness, Authenticity, Interactivity, Student-centredness, and Enjoyment. We identified eight theories that might be useful in analysing and supporting chatbot-assisted learning: constructivist theories, situated/contextualised learning theories, cognitive theories of multimedia learning, self-regulated learning theories, output hypotheses, flow theory, collaborative learning theories and motivation theories. Future studies on chatbot-assisted learning may be conducted on the use of theoretical frameworks, the application of various technological-pedagogical approaches and learning activities, and the long-term, out-of-class implementations in new areas.

This study investigates 10th-grade students' experiences with physical education (PE) units informed by a pedagogical model called the practising model (PM). We apply a theoretical framework that integrates core concepts from phenomenology with empirical investigations of experience by focusing on structures of human existence, such as embodiment, intentionality, intersubjectivity, affectivity, and temporality. Based on qualitative data from observations of 21 PE sessions, 22 student interviews, and the students' diaries, we discuss three key findings: First, we look into the relational aspect of practising and discuss how three levels of intersubjectivity - primary, secondary, and narrative - affect students' experiences. Second, we investigate the bodily aspect of practising by discussing how a dialectic orientation between deliberation, conscious reflections, and embodied actions led to a creative and awakened goal-directedness that nurtured future-oriented and meaningful repetitions. This supported the development of new movement capabilities and helped students discover new ways of experiencing meaning in movement landscapes. Lastly, we address the emotional aspects of practising, where we found that affective modes such as excitement, joy, and uncertainty worked as affordances that provided direction and meaning. Uncertainty turned out to be the essential mode to handle for both students and the teacher. Agency, just right challenges, in-depth reflections, creativity, problem-solving strategies, felt progress, and active repetitions over time emerged as crucial components for keeping uncertainty within the productive span. In short, the findings from this study qualify our knowledge of the experience of practising and throw new light on the process in which educative and meaningful experiences can grow from the practising of capabilities.

This systematic review aims to verify whether tools designed to assess Ayres Sensory Integration constructs take into account the basic principles of current early childhood intervention approaches, namely the family-centered approach, child and family routines, and natural contexts. This systematic review was based on a standard protocol constructed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) statement and included 323 publications. From these publications, we identified seven sensory integration assessment instruments for children up to 6 years old which are compatible with recommended early intervention practice. This study identified the instruments for sensory integration assessment in young children and related them with current principles of early childhood approaches. The findings may help researchers and clinicians choose instruments.

Purpose: The study's primary aims were to describe the long-term speech outcomes for adolescents and young adults with a history of childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) and to examine the association of persistent speech sound errors with measures of literacy skills, phonological processing, motor speech production, and parent report of early motor difficulty. Method: Data from a large longitudinal 25-year study were used to explore outcomes for 32 individuals with a history of CAS, ages 12;6 (years;months) to 25 years (M = 17.4, SD = 4.7). Persistent and nonpersistent groups were compared on decoding, phonological processing, multisyllabic word repetition, diadochokinetic rate, and parent report of motor involvement. Parametric (Welch's t tests) and nonparametric tests (Wilcoxon and Fisher exact tests) were used to identify differences between the groups' distributions. Developmental trajectories of speech production were plotted. Results: Outcomes for individuals with CAS are highly variable, with some demonstrating speech sound errors into adolescence and young adulthood. Speech sound errors were primarily on later developing sounds. Persistence was significantly associated with early motor difficulties. Difficulties with multisyllabic words, phonological processing, and literacy were often present regardless of persistence or nonpersistence of speech errors. Conclusions: Children with CAS are at risk for persistent speech sound errors into adulthood. For children showing limited progress with more traditional speech therapy, alternative interventions should be explored. Individuals with persistent speech sound errors are more likely to have a history of early motor deficits. Regardless of persistence, participants with CAS demonstrated ongoing weaknesses in literacy, phonological processing skills, and complex speech production tasks.

Using data from 11 institutions, the authors investigate enrollments in intermediate microeconomics to determine characteristics of successful and unsuccessful students and follow the retake behavior of unsuccessful students. Successful students are significantly different from unsuccessful ones, and unsuccessful students differ by type (unsuccessful completers vs. withdrawers). Aptitude is a strong predictor of success but not of retake. Having taken or concurrently taking intermediate macro reduces the likelihood of withdrawal and increases that of retake. Proficiency in calculus reduces the likelihood of unsuccessful completion but is uncorrelated with withdrawal and retake. Predictors of unsuccessful completion, withdrawal, and retake are similar in direction and significance for males and females, although magnitudes differ. URM students are more likely than white and Asian students to earn less than a C-.

For proper assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of language disorders in Mandarin children, it is important to have measures that closely track the course of normal development. The current study uses a large collection of spontaneous conversational language samples to track the developmental course of five language measures: mean length of utterance (MLU), the MLU of the five longest utterances (MLU5), vocD, number of repetitions, and number of retracings. We used cross-validation-based linear regression to estimate the relationship between age, gender and each of the five variables derived from the conversational language samples in 101 typically developing Mandarin-speaking children aged 3 to 7. Each of the five measures showed significant age-related effects during the period from age 3 to age 7. As norm-referenced measures of language development in children speaking Mandarin, these developmental data could inform clinical therapists regarding assessments and interventions for children with language disorder or impairment.

Reiterative code-switching, when one lexical item from one language is produced immediately after a semantically equivalent lexical item in another language, is a frequent phenomenon in studies of language contact. Several spoken language studies suggest that reiteration functions as a form of accommodation, amplification (emphasis), reinforcement, or clarification; however, its function in sign language seems less clear. In this study, we investigate reiterative code-switching produced in semispontaneous conversations while manipulating two important factors: interlocutor and topic. Ten bilinguals of Kufr Qassem Sign Language (KQSL), a local sign language used in central Israel, and Israeli Sign Language (ISL), the national sign language of Israel, participated in a semispontaneous conversation task in three interlocutor conditions, with: (1) another bilingual, (2) a KQSL-dominant signer, and (3) an ISL-dominant signer. They were given "local" (e.g., traditions in Kufr Qassem) and "global" (e.g., travel) topics to discuss. A total of 673 code-switches were found in the data, of which sixty-seven were reiterative. Interlocutor was found to be a significant predictor of the presence of reiterative code-switching, with more reiterations observed when participants interacted with a KQSL-dominant signer or bilingual than with an ISL-dominant signer. These results suggest that reiteration serves an accommodative function. Yet, this does not explain reiterations found in the bilingual-bilingual condition. We show that, in these cases, reiteration plays other roles beyond accommodation, including amplification.

The efficacy of fake news corrections in improving memory and belief accuracy may depend on how often adults see false information before it is corrected. Two experiments tested the competing predictions that repeating fake news before corrections will either impair or improve memory and belief accuracy. These experiments also examined whether fake news exposure effects would differ for younger and older adults due to age-related differences in the recollection of contextual details. Younger and older adults read real and fake news headlines that appeared once or thrice. Next, they identified fake news corrections among real news headlines. Later, recognition and cued recall tests assessed memory for real news, fake news, if corrections occurred, and beliefs in retrieved details. Repeating fake news increased detection and remembering of corrections, correct real news retrieval, and erroneous fake news retrieval. No age differences emerged for detection of corrections, but younger adults remembered corrections better than older adults. At test, correct fake news retrieval for earlier-detected corrections was associated with better real news retrieval. This benefit did not differ between age groups in recognition but was greater for younger than older adults in cued recall. When detected corrections were not remembered at test, repeated fake news increased memory errors. Overall, both age groups believed correctly retrieved real news more than erroneously retrieved fake news to a similar degree. These findings suggest that fake news repetition effects on subsequent memory accuracy depended on age differences in recollection-based retrieval of fake news and that it was corrected.

Researchers examining the structure of questions in signed languages, often using elicited data from informants, have proposed that there are specific manual and nonmanual actions produced by signers to indicate different question types (e.g., Zeshan 2004), for example, raised eyebrows for polar questions. In the current study, we add to this body of work with an investigation into the use of two common interactional behaviors -- finger pointing and palm-up actions -- as they occur in questions asked during naturalistic conversations in Norwegian Sign Language. The interactional work finger pointing and palm-up actions can achieve in various settings is well-documented (e.g., Bavelas 1994), and their presence in question contexts has been observed in Norwegian Sign Language (Ferrara 2020). In total, 455 questions produced by thirty-four deaf signers were examined as they appeared across dyadic, triadic, and multiparty conversations recorded in the Norwegian Sign Language Corpus (Ferrara and Ringsø 2021; Ferrara and Bø 2022; Ferrara in prep). These questions were then examined for the presence of interactional finger pointing and palm-up actions. Analyses firstly revealed that interactional finger pointing and palm-up actions appeared in many of the questions examined. Within this subset of the data, further analysis showed that these forms may be the only manual action that signals an utterance as a question, or they may occur in combination with other manual (e.g., WH-question forms: HOW, WHERE) and nonmanual actions (e.g., furrowed or raised brows). In many of these questions, the two forms appear in utterance-final position, thereby indexing an interlocutor in order to solicit a response. Such initial observations suggest that these two manual actions must be considered as part of the constellation of behaviors that characterize the highly indexical and interactional nature of question-asking in Norwegian Sign Language.