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The relative cost of healthy and sustainable diets is key for their adoption in different countries. Using a newly developed modelling tool that generates different diet baskets, we compared the costs of diets following the EAT–Lancet healthy reference diet, the Mexican dietary guidelines and locals’ current food intake. On average, the cost of the EAT–Lancet healthy reference diet baskets was 21% lower than that of the Mexican dietary guidelines baskets, and 40% lower than that of the current intake baskets (29% lower if the comparison was isocaloric). Findings were similar over time (2011–2018) and by geographic region. The higher cost associated with the larger amount of fruits, vegetables, legumes and nuts in healthy and sustainable diets was surpassed by the savings associated with their lower amount of animal protein sources, sugar-sweetened beverages and discretionary foods. We conclude that transitioning to better diets in Mexico is possible without a higher expenditure on food. Costs are often assumed to be a barrier to the adoption of healthier and more sustainable diets. A comparison of the EAT–Lancet healthy reference diet, national dietary guidelines and current food intake in Mexico reveals that better diets do not always imply higher food expenditures.

Wind-wave processes have generally been excluded from coupled Earth system models due to the high computational expense of spectral wave models, which resolve a frequency and direction spectrum of waves across space and time. Existing uniform-resolution wave modeling approaches used in Earth system models cannot appropriately represent wave climates from global to coastal ocean scales, largely because of tradeoffs between coastal resolution and computational costs. To resolve this challenge, we introduce a global unstructured mesh capability for the WAVEWATCH III (WW3) model that is suitable for coupling within the US Department of Energy's Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM). The new unstructured WW3 global wave modeling approach can provide the accuracy of higher global resolutions in coastal areas at the relative cost of lower uniform global resolutions. This new capability enables simulation of waves at physically relevant scales as needed for coastal applications.

Study Design: Broad narrative review. Objective: To review and summarize the current literature on the cost efficacy of performing ACDF, lumbar discectomy and short segment fusions of the lumbar spine performed in the outpatient setting. Methods: A thorough review of peer- reviewed literature was performed on the relative cost-savings, as well as guidelines, outcomes, and indications for successfully implementing outpatient protocols for routine spine procedures. Results: Primary elective 1-2 level ACDF can be safely performed in most patient populations with a higher patient satisfaction rate and no significant difference in 90-day reoperations and readmission rates, and a savings of 4000 to 41 305 USD per case. Lumbar discectomy performed through minimally invasive techniques has decreased recovery times with similar patient outcomes to open procedures. Performing lumbar microdiscectomy in the outpatient setting is safe, cheaper by as much as 12 934 USD per case and has better or equivalent outcomes to their inpatient counterparts. Unlike ACDF and lumbar microdiscectomy, short segment fusions are rarely performed in ASCs. However, with the advent of minimally invasive techniques paired with improved pain control, same-day discharge after lumbar fusion has limited clinical data but appears to have potential cost-savings up to 65-70% by reducing admissions. Conclusion: Performing ACDF, lumbar discectomy and short segment fusions in the outpatient setting is a safe and effective way of reducing cost in select patient populations.

Evidence on whether healthy diets are more expensive than less healthy diets is mixed. The relative cost of meeting healthy diet guidelines in Belgium was estimated., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Purpose: This work compares the relative cost utility of ranibizumab and aflibercept with and without verteporfin photodynamic therapy (vPDT) for the treatment of polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy. Methods: A retrospective cost and outcomes analysis of the PLANET (Efficacy and Safety of Intravitreal Aflibercept for Polypoidal Choroidal Vasculopathy) and EVEREST II (Efficacy and Safety of Ranibizumab With or Without Verteporfin Photodynamic Therapy for Polypoidal Choroidal Vasculopathy) studies was performed. Clinical utilization and outcomes were based on data from these clinical trials, and costs were obtained from Medicare fee schedules. Cost utility was derived from published visual outcomes and expressed as quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Cost per QALY and cost per line of vision gained for each treatment strategy (in US dollars) were assessed as the main outcome measure. Results: The 1-year facility (nonfacility) costs per QALY were $295,744.41 ($260,088.19), $209,574.09 ($182,831.77), $211,072.63 ($188,425.33), and $212,275.22 ($189,703.05) for ranibizumab as-needed monotherapy, ranibizumab as-needed with combination therapy, aflibercept monotherapy, and aflibercept with delayed vPDT combination therapy, respectively. Conclusions: Ranibizumab as-needed monotherapy was the least clinically effective and least cost efficient over 1 year. Ranibizumab as-needed with combination therapy, aflibercept monotherapy, and aflibercept with deferred vPDT combination therapy all had similar overall cost utility at 1 year. If bevacizumab were to be substituted for ranibizumab, the cost per QALY could be reduced by approximately a factor of 5, showing the benefit of bevacizumab for increasing the cost utility of polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy treatment.

Two laboratory-scale single-stage submerged membrane bioreactors (MBRs) were operated in parallel to examine the effect of different flux conditions and several fouling mitigation methods. After control operation (filtration only), three fouling control methods (relaxation, standard backwash and chemical backwash) at 27 litres per m2 per hour (LMH) flux and four different flux conditions (54, 36, 27 and 18 LMH) with standard backwash were applied. Physical performance of MBRs was evaluated based on the operational duration to reach maximum transmembrane pressure and the volume of permeate produced during the operational duration. Then relative cost–benefit analysis was carried out. Results showed that the combination of chemical backwash and standard backwash was the most effective for fouling mitigation in terms of physical improvement of MBR performance. However, the combination proved less economical (400% + α relative cost) than standard backwash alone (343% relative cost), because of the additional cost for pumps and chemicals. It also showed that lower flux (18 LMH) is desirable as it showed better physical performance (1,770% improvement as compared to the highest flux, 54 LMH) and proved more economical than higher flux configuration. Therefore, it is concluded that the operation with standard backwash at the lowest possible flux is the best combination to improve MBR performance as well as long-term cost–benefit. HIGHLIGHTS Many studies focus mainly on high-cost, high-performance techniques without economic justification. But this research focused on the interpretation of performance improvement made by several fouling control methods in terms of relative cost as well as physical performance.; Chemical backwash supported by standard backwash showed the best physical performance among the other operations with different fouling control methods. However, the best operation in physical performance was proven to be less economical than standard backwash operation, because it showed higher long-term cost than that of standard backwash operation.; Therefore this study suggested one of useful tools to justify any fouling control methods in MBR research field not only by physical performance but also by cost-benefit.

The potential role of multicore fibers (MCFs) in submarine cable systems is investigated in the context of electrical power limitations and physical fiber count limitations. We compare the maximum cable capacity theoretically possible for cables using MCFs with 2, 3, and 4 cores to that of cables built with conventional single-core fibers. The comparisons are made based on ideal Shannon-limited capacity, systems with constant output power amplifiers, and individual amplification of MCF cores using fan-in/fan-out devices. MCFs are assumed to have nominally uncoupled cores for which crosstalk between cores is a system impairment. We examine the relative cost/bit of systems built with MCFs and single-core fibers when designed for maximum capacity, and when designed for minimum cost/bit operation. The relative capacity of a cable with MCFs depends strongly on the number of fibers able to be physically accommodated and is greatest when the fiber count number is relatively small. We find only small differences in the relative capacities of MCFs with 2-4 cores and that any advantage over single-core fiber systems can be eroded with minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) requirements above the theoretical level near 0 dB that maximizes cable capacity. The cost/bit of MCF cable systems is determined to be higher than that of single-core fiber systems when maximum cable capacity is the design goal, according to the cost model employed and the specific system and fiber parameters assumed here. Different results may be obtained with cost model refinements and different parameters.

This paper takes issue with the IMF’s continued advocacy of liberalization andfîscal and monetary restraint in Turkey, by assessing the impact of the last tıvo stand-by agreements in 1999 and 2000. We investigate the preconditions of the twin crises if 2000 and 2001 and conclııde that the initiation of the 1999 Stand-by Agreement should have been conditional on structııral reforms in the banking sector. Besides, it is argued that the IMF imposed its policy prescriptions ıvithout suffıcient consideration of the market imperfections that prevail in Turkey. On the fıscal side, we defend targeted spending in key areas, particularly where there is complementariness between efficiency, productivity, relative cost and distributive fairness. We defend the view that the disinflationary, groıvth and human development agendas should be carried out simııltaneously.

In light of the Paris Agreement, road-freight represents a critically difficult-to-abate sector. In order to meet the ambitious European transport sector emissions reduction targets, a rapid transition to zero-carbon road-freight is necessary. However, limited policy assessments indicate where and how to appropriately intervene in this sector. To support policy-makers in accelerating the zero-carbon road-freight transition, this paper examines the relative cost competitiveness between commercial vehicles of varying alternative drive-technologies through a total cost of ownership (TCO) assessment. We identify key parameters that, when targeted, enable the uptake of these more sustainable niche technologies. The assessment is based on a newly compiled database of cost parameters which were triangulated through expert interviews. The results show that cost competitiveness for low- or zero-emission niche technologies in certain application segments and European countries is exhibited already today. In particular, we find battery electric vehicles to show great promise in the light- and medium-duty segments, but also in the heavy-duty long-haul segments in countries that have enacted targeted policy measures. Three TCO parameters drive this competitiveness: tolls, fuel costs, and CAPEX subsidies. Based on our analysis, we propose that policy-makers target OPEX before CAPEX parameters as well utilize a mix of policy interventions to ensure greater reach, increased efficiency, and increased policy flexibility. ISSN:0306-2619 ISSN:1872-9118

Made available in DSpace on 2022-04-29T08:36:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2022-01-01 Universidade Estadual Paulista Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Polyaniline (PANI) derivatives are promising compounds for chemical sensor applications due to their low relative cost and high versatility of synthesis. However, at the same time that the great chemical versatility of these compounds allows the design of a number of derivatives, it is difficult to identify optimized materials only via trial and error. Here we present a theoretical study on the opto-electronic responses of PANI derivatives in relation to a series of gaseous compounds. Distinct branched PANI-based compounds were designed considering specific side groups, rationalized by Hammett indexes, and investigated via density functional theory (DFT). The results indicate that the presence of side groups can modulate the local reactivity and electronic properties of the compounds, tuning their capability to detect chemical species. In particular, higher reactivity on accessible side groups are obtained for the derivatives PANI-CCH, PANI-CN and PANI-NO2, facilitating their interaction with analytes. São Paulo State University (UNESP) Campus of Itapeva São Paulo State University (UNESP) School of Sciences POSMAT São Paulo State University (UNESP) Campus of Itapeva São Paulo State University (UNESP) School of Sciences POSMAT CNPq: 420449/2018-3

This paper proposes a controller that gives guaranteed optimal performance in terms of the relative cost for a class of discrete-time nonlinear systems with uncertainties. In some systems, the abso...

Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) or Reinforced Soil structures are composite structures consisting of alternating layers of compacted backfill and soil reinforcement elements that are fixed to a facing. The stability of MSE structures is derived from the interaction between the backfill and soil reinforcements, involving friction and tension. The facing is relatively thin and is intended to perform the primary function of preventing erosion of the structural backfill. The significant relative cost saving that can be realized when this system is used compared to traditional RCC retaining structures, combined with ease of construction has resulted in widespread adoption of this technology in India and around the world. MSE structures have been found to perform satisfactorily when subjected to seismic loading conditions provided that recommended practices are adopted during their construction. This paper presents case studies of superior performance of MSE structures when subjected to seismic loading both during and after completion of construction including a case study on the behaviour of MSE structures founded on soft silt deposit in seismically active hilly terrain in the stretch from Quazigund to Baramulla where an earthquake measuring 5.4 on the Richter scale occurred during construction of the structure.

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are clonal stem cell disorders characterized collectively by clonal proliferation of myeloid cells with variable morphologic maturity and hematopoietic efficiency. Although the natural history of these neoplasms can be measured sometimes in decades more than years, the cytogenetics analysis can offer useful information regarding the prognosis. Cytogenetics has a well-established prognostic role in acute leukemias and in myelodysplastic syndromes, where it drives the clinical decisions. NGS techniques can find adverse mutations with clear prognostic value and are currently included in the prognostic evaluation of MPNs in scores such as MIPSS, GIPSS, MIPSS-PV, and MIPSS-ET. We suggest that cytogenetics (considering its availability and relative cost) has a role regarding prognostic and therapeutic decisions.

Increasing affluence is associated with increases in the variety and diversity of consumers’ diets. While this relationship likely reflects a heightened ability of consumers to satisfy unique preferences, it is also possible that higher income and food expenditure are associated with more preference instability, as the relative cost of a mistake falls with income. This paper shows that the ability to detect preference instability increases with income. In an empirical application involving almost 540,000 food choices by almost 60,000 people, 47% committed at least one preference reversal. The odds a preference reversal are 1.8 (2.5) times higher for individuals who spend at least $160/week on food at home (away from home) compared to individuals who spend less than $20/week. Individuals who commit preference reversals are less likely to rate price and are more likely to rate novelty as important food values.

Motivated by the need for a deeper understanding of the factors and processes through which consumers evaluate corporate giving, this paper examines the role of perceived effort in the formation of consumers' motive attributions. Guided by attribution theory and the augmentation principle, three studies are put forth to demonstrate how the type, nature and source of giving influences consumers' perception of effort and ultimately, their evaluation of the firm. Results show that donation type, time versus money, differentially influence consumers' attitude toward the firm via serial mediation. Specifically, corporate donations of time (compared to money) lead to higher levels of perceived effort, which then induce more altruistic motive attributions. We also find that the effect of donation type on perceived effort is moderated by consumers' perception of the relative cost of the donation to the firm.

One important, but overlooked, risk mitigation device that facilitated the growth of the slave trade in the eighteenth century was the increasing availability of insurance for ships and their human cargoes. In this article we explore, for the first time, the relative cost of insurance for British slave traders, the underlying processes by which this key aspect of the business of slavery was conducted, and the factors behind price and other changes over time. Comparisons are also drawn with the transatlantic slave trades of other nations. As well as analyzing the business of underwriting slave voyages, we have two other objectives. First, we explore the meaning of slave insurance from the perspective of those directly involved in the trade. Was it about insuring lives or goods? Second, we provide new estimates of the importance of the slave trade to U.K. marine insurance. Did the former drive the growth of the latter, as Joseph Inikori has claimed?

ENTHIS LINK GOES TO A ENGLISH SECTIONFRTHIS LINK GOES TO A FRENCH SECTION Consider assessing the evidence for an exposure variable and a disease variable being associated, when the true exposure variable is more costly to obtain than an error‐prone but nondifferential surrogate exposure variable. From a study design perspective, there are choices regarding the best use of limited resources. Should one acquire the true exposure status for fewer subjects or the surrogate exposure status for more subjects? The issue of validation is also central, i.e., should we simultaneously measure the true and surrogate exposure variables on a subset of study subjects? Using large‐sample theory, we provide a framework for quantifying the power of testing for an exposure–disease association as a function of study cost. This enables us to present comparisons of different study designs under different suppositions about both the relative cost and the performance (sensitivity and specificity) of the surrogate variable. We present simulations to show the applicability of our theoretical framework, and we provide a case‐study comparing results from an actual study to what could have been seen had true exposure status been ascertained for a different proportion of study subjects. We also describe an extension of our ideas to a more complex situation involving covariates. The Canadian Journal of Statistics 47: 222–237; 2019 © 2019 Statistical Society of Canada

Increasing worldwide environmental consciousness has been driving countries in the world to adjust their environmental policies. Conventional wisdom often suggests tightening environmental policy, but this paper challenges that wisdom. By using an oligopoly model, we show that, in the case of local pollution, a country that confronts increasing environmental consciousness tightens or slackens its environmental policy depending on the relative cost competitiveness to its rivals. However, in the case of global pollution, all countries in the world always tighten their environmental policies as worldwide environmental consciousness rises. These results derived from the optimal non-cooperative (Nash) equilibrium policy that maximizes own country’s welfare are valid in the case of efficient policy setting in which policy is chosen to maximize global welfare. The policy gap between these two equilibria may increase or decrease as environmental consciousness changes, relying on the relative competitiveness to firm’s rivals and on the initial level of environmental consciousness.

The process of designing a new machine or design is a constant need to make decisions in the face of uncertainty: from the design idea, layout, and to the choice of materials and equipment. At the same time, the indicators of reliability and cost, which are refined for a long time at the stage of testing a prototype and under controlled operation, remain virtually unrecorded. It is too expensive and requires considerable time. How can these indicators be taken into account at the design stage, reducing time and costs? In addition, the service and operational characteristics of a metal structural material: chemical composition, short-term, cyclic and long-term strength, ductility, crack resistance - form a multidimensional vector, each of which components separately weakly correlates with the market price of the alloy, which does not directly allow us to estimate the cost of the structure and not allows a priori ranking of alloys according to a comprehensive assessment of value under specific conditions with given parameters of temperature-force load on a given resu a. For the first time such a statement of the problem was formed in our publications cited in the list of references. This research is their further development. The methodology for estimating the relative cost of modern metallic structural materials for given operating conditions (load, temperature, resource) and alloy properties (reduced coefficient of quotation, melting point, specific gravity) is given. On the basis of these estimates and the previously proposed universal generalized diagram of a prof. Grabara, for the first time, they managed to obtain comparative estimates of the cost of metal structures for a wide range of their operating conditions (stresses, temperatures and resource), referred to the unit of operation time. This methodology allows a significant reduction in the level of uncertainty, and can be applied already at the stage of preliminary design of the machine. The approach outlined in the paper opens up good prospects for a deeper feasibility study of engineering solutions at the stage of preliminary machine design. Examples of calculation.

The purpose of this paper is to highlight some old discoveries from Colonia Dacia Sarmizegetusa (CDS), more precisely a terracotta arm and a few terracotta fingers which, most likely, could be associated with a ritual healing process in local temples. For a complete analysis, this paper approaches the topic of the anatomical votive terracotta phenomenon by examining the contextual relationship between all votive objects and the cult structures which may be connected to them. Even one of the objects under the study has an uncertain discovery context, most of them are connected to the temple of Aesculapius and Hygeia, all of them being anatomical offerings used as a symbol of the suppliant’s gratitude for divine healing. This may be the evidence of an organised medical practice within these sanctuaries, for the average person to get health, sanatio, the relative cost of anatomical votive terracotta was low compared to the consultant’s fee of a physician.

BackgroundSufficiently accurate predictions of hospital readmissions are necessary for the allocation of scare clinical resources to reduce preventable readmissions. We describe the use of a data-driven approach that relies on machine learning algorithms to predict readmission at the time of discharge.MethodsWe employ random forests to clinical and administrative electronic health record data available from a cohort of 103,688 patients discharged from the acute inpatient settings of the University of Pennsylvania Health System between June 25th, 2011 and June 30th, 2013. We predict both 30-day all-cause readmissions and 7-day unplanned readmissions using only predictors available by the time of discharge. Using oversampling and undersampling of the different outcome classes of readmission and no readmission, we incorporate into our models the asymmetric costs of a false negative relative to a false positive from the perspective of a hospital. We calculate variable importance scores for included predictors. Our approach was derived and validated using split-sample internal validation.ResultsWe developed a machine learning-based model using random forests with a 5:1 relative cost ratio for 30-day all-cause readmissions that achieves a sensitivity of 65% and specificity of 71% on validation data, as well as a random forests model with a 20:1 cost ratio for 7-day unplanned readmissions that achieves a sensitivity of 62% and specificity of 66% on validation data. Prior health system utilization, clinical discharging service, and vital sign information were most predictive of readmissions.ConclusionBy modeling the complex relationships between many predictor variables and readmission data for a large health system, we demonstrate successful predictive models that can be used upon discharge to flag patients at high risk of readmission.

This work extends the adaptive RSA algorithm that is based on the relative cost for solving the routing, modulation level and spectrum assignment (RMSA) for elastic optical network (EON). In planning and execution of EONs, RMSA is a viral aspect. Our proposed RMSA is rooted in the relative cost concept and evaluates the average effect upon the admission of a connection request at a given network state on a given set of resources. Besides, only if the minimal relative cost is less than the request’s value, a connection request is admitted. Simulation has been used to display the effectiveness of using relative cost RMSA for attaining higher fairness in EONs and lower lost revenue.

Relational cost analysis aims at formally establishing bounds on the difference in the evaluation costs of two programs. As a particular case, one can also use relational cost analysis to establish bounds on the difference in the evaluation cost of the same program on two different inputs. One way to perform relational cost analysis is to use a relational type-and-effect system that supports reasoning about relations between two executions of two programs. Building on this basic idea, we present a type-and-effect system, called ARel, for reasoning about the relative cost (the difference in the evaluation cost) of array-manipulating, higher order functional-imperative programs. The key ingredient of our approach is a new lightweight type refinement discipline that we use to track relations (differences) between two mutable arrays. This discipline combined with Hoare-style triples built into the types allows us to express and establish precise relative costs of several interesting programs that imperatively update their data. We have implemented ARel using ideas from bidirectional type checking.

An in situ co-processing visualization pipeline based on the Universal Data Junction (UDJ) library and Inshimtu is presented and used for processing data from Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) simulations. For the common case of analyzing just a number of fields during simulation, UDJ transfers and redistributes the data in approximately \(6\%\) of the time needed by WRF for a MPI-IO output of all variables upon which a previous method with Inshimtu is based. The relative cost of transport and redistribution compared to IO remains approximately constant up to the highest considered node count without obvious impediments to scale further.

We model the application of multicore optical fibers for submarine systems using an approach to estimate relative cost/bit. While multicore fibers may offer higher capacity, achieving lower cost/bit than single core fiber systems remains challenging.

Many individuals perform cell viability assays as a measure of biocompatibility whether the focus of their research is on novel drug discovery, development of novel biomedical devices, or the study of biointerfacial phenomena. In this tutorial paper, the most commonly used methods available to users to perform biocompatibility testing are discussed. This includes a brief introduction into the benefits and drawbacks of the techniques, including which are best used as screening assays, which are better suited to experienced users, the relative cost of the assays per unit, and what detection techniques are most appropriate for use in conjunction with the assays. In addition to helping users ensure the rigor and reproducibility of their research design, this tutorial is meant to assist reviewers of interdisciplinary journals (such as Biointerphases itself), whose expertise is in other areas of this research but do not have the experience with cell-based assays themselves.

In many species, males produce signals to attract females. However, in some species and populations, only some males produce these signals with other males competing for and “sneaking” reproductive opportunities. In these systems, at least three tactics are expected: always signal, signal only when others are not (assessors), and never signal. The representation of these tactics within a population is unknown in part because the costs of signaling (C) and the fitness value of a single reproductive bout (V) are unknown. Using a game-theoretic model we predict that the always signal strategy only persists if the fitness value of calling is greater than twice the cost. We also show that always signal males are apparently absent in decorated crickets (Gryllodes sigillatus). Moreover, males of this species were not strict assessors and instead signaled infrequently (30% of the time) when signaling by others was constant. Males also exhibited substantial among-individual variation in the propensity to call when other males were not signaling (τ = 0.3). Our results suggest a high relative cost of signaling (2C > V) in this species. The presence of among-individual variation is indicative of underlying genetic variation and a mixed evolutionary stable strategy.

Multi-path RSA is a favorable strategy to balance traffic distribution and to reduce the call blocking probabilities in elastic optical networks (EON). We propose an adaptive multi-path routing and spectrum allocation (RSA) based on the relative cost technique. The relative cost estimates the longterm effect on network resources if a call is carried out. The path or multi-path with the least relative cost is selected. Furthermore, the call is only accepted if the least relative cost is less than the call's reward. We will show the effectiveness of the proposed adaptive multi-path RSA by simulation.

Attack scenarios with limitations were investigated. Resource-factors and condition-factors were set as two types of limitations. Resource-factors are spent at each step of attack and can be replenished completely or partially if a given attack step was successful. A situation, where successful completion of current step with one or more preceding ones is required to replenish resource-factors, is possible. After each step of attack the violator can “exchange” resource-factors to accumulate the required amount of those factors for the next step. The lack of the required amount of resource-factors may either forcefully interrupt an attack or to lower success probability or reduce the time required by protection side to discover the consequences of an attack. This article doesn’t consider the change of relative cost of resource-factors, that is caused by urgency, so that all resource-factors have fixed cost regardless of violator’s reserve of these resource-factors. Conditions-factors are fixed limitations for conducting an attack. Discrepancy of condition-factors makes it impossible to either start an attack or to finish the current attack’s step. In certain cases the lack in one condition-factor can be compensated with excess of another condition-factor or via spending additional resource-factors. The influence on resource-factors and condition-factors is laid as a basis of protection strategies. The strategy of increasing the values of condition-factors for violator decreases the total amount of attacks on a system by screening beginner violators. The threat level from groups of violators and from experienced violators will remain unchanged. The strategy of increasing the rate of resource-factors spending is designed to interrupt attacks in progress. Strategy of decreasing the amount of resource-factors that can be replenished after successful completion of certain steps of attack scenario is meant to decrease violator’s interest in attacking specifically our system and to decrease the chances of attack repetition if an attack occurred.

Italian Abstract: Il Fondo di garanzia per le PMI (FDG) rappresenta il principale strumento pubblico a sostegno dell’accesso al credito. In questo lavoro si valuta l’impatto delle norme regionali che ne limitano l’operativita ai finanziamenti garantiti dai confidi, sfruttando le discontinuita regolamentari osservate lo scorso decennio in alcune regioni che hanno abolito (Lazio) o introdotto (Abruzzo e Marche) la limitazione. Attraverso un’analisi differenza-nelle-differenze, vengono stimati gli effetti di questi mutamenti normativi utilizzando come controlli imprese operanti in regioni contigue (Toscana ed Emilia Romagna), dove il quadro normativo e rimasto inalterato. I risultati indicano che limitare l’operativita del FDG alle operazioni di controgaranzia ha prodotto effetti sostanzialmente negativi sull’accesso al credito delle imprese. Nel Lazio, dopo la rimozione della limitazione, e cresciuto sia il numero di imprese che hanno avuto accesso sia il volume dei finanziamenti garantiti, per tutte le classi dimensionali. E inoltre migliorato il differenziale di tasso praticato. In Abruzzo e nelle Marche l’introduzione della limitazione ha prodotto effetti prevalentemente negativi su numero, volume e costo dei finanziamenti alle imprese regionali. English Abstract:The Italian public guarantee scheme (Fondo di garanzia - FDG) is the main tool supporting SMEs’ access to credit. This work evaluates the impact of the regional laws limiting the FDG’s operations to loans guaranteed by mutual guarantee institutions. To this end, we exploit the regulations’ discontinuities that occurred in some Italian regions that have either abolished or introduced such a restriction. We study the effects of the regulation changes in a difference-in-differences setting where treated firms are located in regime switching regions and control firms are in neighbouring regions. We find that constraining access to the FDG’s publicly funded collateral to counter-guarantee schemes hampered SMEs’ access to finance overall. Removing the restriction increased both the number of firms with access to the FDG’s guarantees and the total size of the loans granted to treated SMEs of any size. Moreover, the relative cost of credit improved for treated firms. Conversely, the introduction of the restriction to counter-guarantees had mostly negative effects on the number, size and cost of loans granted to treated firms.

We explore the link between firms' dollar bond borrowing and their FX-hedged funding opportunities, as reflected in a positive corporate basis (the relative cost of local to synthetic currency borrowing). Consistent with previous research, we first document that firms substitute domestic for dollar borrowing when they have higher dollar revenues or long-term assets and when the corporate basis widens. Importantly, our novel firm-level dataset enables to show that when these funding opportunities appear, the currency substitution is stronger for very high-grade firms, as they can offer to investors close substitutes for safe dollar assets. However, firms with higher dollar revenues or long-term assets do not react to changes in the corporate basis. Altogether, the composition of dollar borrowers shifts when the basis widens, as very high-grade firms gain importance, relative to firms with operational needs.

While recent models have achieved human-level scores on many NLP datasets, we observe that they are considerably sensitive to small changes in input. As an alternative to the standard approach of addressing this issue by constructing training sets of completely new examples, we propose doing so via minimal perturbation of examples. Specifically, our approach involves first collecting a set of seed examples and then applying human-driven natural perturbations (as opposed to rule-based machine perturbations), which often change the gold label as well. Local perturbations have the advantage of being relatively easier (and hence cheaper) to create than writing out completely new examples. To evaluate the impact of this phenomenon, we consider a recent question-answering dataset (BoolQ) and study the benefit of our approach as a function of the perturbation cost ratio, the relative cost of perturbing an existing question vs. creating a new one from scratch. We find that when natural perturbations are moderately cheaper to create, it is more effective to train models using them: such models exhibit higher robustness and better generalization, while retaining performance on the original BoolQ dataset., Comment: EMNLP 2020

Is trade a promoter of peace? Adam Smith, one of the earliest defenders of trade, worries that commerce may instigate some perverse incentives, encouraging wars. The wealth that commerce generates decreases the relative cost of wars, increases the ability to finance wars through debts, which decreases their perceived cost, and increases the willingness of commercial interests to use wars to extend their markets, increasing the number and prolonging the length of wars. Smith, therefore, cannot assume that trade would yield a peaceful world. While defending and promoting trade, Smith warns us not to take peace for granted.

Sinkholes are parts and characteristic features of typical karst systems. Extensive research has been done on investigation, monitoring, risk evaluation, and land management to prevent formation of sinkholes and subsidences. Little emphasis is, however, given to the various processes and methodologies with respect to response actions for their remediation. The response action or remedial alternatives used to mitigate a sinkhole or subsidence depend on the complexity of the conceptual site model composed of influencing factors and triggering mechanisms, depth and lateral extent of instability, impact on existing infrastructure, and existing and reasonably anticipated land uses. Many sinkhole and subsidence rehabilitation engineering controls are available; however, each sinkhole must be treated uniquely when a decision is made on the most appropriate remedial alternative. Selection of preferred remedial alternative is based on effectiveness, implementability, and relative cost with the ultimate goal of protecting the public welfare, property, and the environment. Institutional control and monitoring options are typical components of any sinkhole remedial alternatives. A case study was presented to illustrate how the remedial alternative analysis approach was used to determine the preferred method for sinkhole remediation.