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The reported detection of the global 21-cm signal by the EDGES collaboration is significantly stronger than standard astrophysical predictions. One possible explanation is an early radio excess above the cosmic microwave background. Such a radio background could have been produced by high redshift galaxies, if they were especially efficient in producing low-frequency synchrotron radiation. We have previously studied the effects of such an inhomogeneous radio background on the 21-cm signal; however, we made a simplifying assumption of isotropy of the background seen by each hydrogen cloud. Here we perform a complete calculation that accounts for the fact that the 21-cm absorption occurs along the line of sight, and is therefore sensitive to radio sources lying behind each absorbing cloud. We find that the complete calculation strongly enhances the 21-cm power spectrum during cosmic dawn, by up to two orders of magnitude; on the other hand, the effect on the global 21-cm signal is only at the $5\%$ level. In addition to making the high-redshift 21-cm fluctuations potentially more easily observable, the line of sight radio effect induces a new anisotropy in the 21-cm power spectrum. While these effects are particularly large for the case of an extremely-enhanced radio efficiency, they make it more feasible to detect even a moderately-enhanced radio efficiency in early galaxies. This is especially relevant since the EDGES signal has been contested by the SARAS experiment., Comment: Submitted to MNRAS

The cosmic 21-cm line of hydrogen is expected to be measured in detail by the next generation of radio telescopes. The enormous dataset from future 21-cm surveys will revolutionize our understanding of early cosmic times. We present a machine learning approach based on an Artificial Neural Network that uses emulation in order to uncover the astrophysics in the epoch of reionization and cosmic dawn. Using a seven-parameter astrophysical model that covers a very wide range of possible 21-cm signals, over the redshift range 6 to 30 and wavenumber range $0.05$ to $1 \ \rm{Mpc}^{-1}$ we emulate the 21-cm power spectrum with a typical accuracy of $10 - 20\%$. As a realistic example, we train an emulator using the power spectrum with an optimistic noise model of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). Fitting to mock SKA data results in a typical measurement accuracy of $2.8\%$ in the optical depth to the cosmic microwave background, $34\%$ in the star-formation efficiency of galactic halos, and a factor of 9.6 in the X-ray efficiency of galactic halos. Also, with our modeling we reconstruct the true 21-cm power spectrum from the mock SKA data with a typical accuracy of $15 - 30\%$. In addition to standard astrophysical models, we consider two exotic possibilities of strong excess radio backgrounds at high redshifts. We use a neural network to identify the type of radio background present in the 21-cm power spectrum, with an accuracy of $87\%$ for mock SKA data., Comment: Revision to match MNRAS published version

Mapping Cosmic Dawn with 21-cm tomography offers an exciting new window into the era of primordial star formation. However, self-consistent implementation of both the process of star formation and the related 21-cm signal is challenging, due to the multi-scale nature of the problem. In this study, we develop a flexible semi-analytical model to follow the formation of the first stars and the process of gradual transition from primordial to metal-enriched star formation. For this transition we use different in scenarios with varying time-delays (or recovery times) between the first supernovae and the formation of the second generation of stars. We use recovery times between 10 and 100\,Myr and find that these delays have a strong impact on the redshift at which the transition to metal-enriched star formation occurs. We then explore the effect of this transition on the 21-cm signal and find that the recovery time has a distinctive imprint in the signal. Together with an improved understanding of how this time-delay relates to the properties of Population~III stars, future 21-cm observations can give independent constraints on the earliest epoch of star formation., Comment: 17 pages, 11 Figures, submitted to MNRAS, comments very welcome

Recently, the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array (HERA) collaboration has produced the experiment's first upper limits on the power spectrum of 21-cm fluctuations at z~8 and 10. Here, we use several independent theoretical models to infer constraints on the intergalactic medium (IGM) and galaxies during the epoch of reionization (EoR) from these limits. We find that the IGM must have been heated above the adiabatic cooling threshold by z~8, independent of uncertainties about the IGM ionization state and the nature of the radio background. Combining HERA limits with galaxy and EoR observations constrains the spin temperature of the z~8 neutral IGM to 27 K < T_S < 630 K (2.3 K < T_S < 640 K) at 68% (95%) confidence. They therefore also place a lower bound on X-ray heating, a previously unconstrained aspects of early galaxies. For example, if the CMB dominates the z~8 radio background, the new HERA limits imply that the first galaxies produced X-rays more efficiently than local ones (with soft band X-ray luminosities per star formation rate constrained to L_X/SFR = { 10^40.2, 10^41.9 } erg/s/(M_sun/yr) at 68% confidence), consistent with expectations of X-ray binaries in low-metallicity environments. The z~10 limits require even earlier heating if dark-matter interactions (e.g., through millicharges) cool down the hydrogen gas. Using a model in which an extra radio background is produced by galaxies, we rule out (at 95% confidence) the combination of high radio and low X-ray luminosities of L_{r,\nu}/SFR > 3.9 x 10^24 W/Hz/(M_sun/yr) and L_X/SFR<10^40 erg/s/(M_sun/yr). The new HERA upper limits neither support nor disfavor a cosmological interpretation of the recent EDGES detection. The analysis framework described here provides a foundation for the interpretation of future HERA results., Comment: 40 pages, 19 figures, accepted to ApJ

The 21-cm signal from cosmic dawn and the epoch of reionization (EoR) probes the characteristics of the high redshift galaxy population. Many of the astrophysical properties of galaxies at high redshifts are currently unconstrained due to the lack of observations. This creates a vast space of possible astrophysical scenarios where the 21-cm signal needs to be modeled in order to plan for, and eventually fit, future observations. This is done with fast numerical methods which make simplifying approximations for the underlying physical processes. In this work we quantify the effect of Poisson fluctuations and scatter in the star formation efficiency; while Poisson fluctuations are included in some works and not in others, scatter in the star formation efficiency is usually neglected, and all galaxies of a given mass are assumed to have the same properties. We show that both features can have a significant effect on the 21-cm power spectrum, most importantly in scenarios where the signal is dominated by massive galaxies. Scatter in the star formation efficiency does not simply enhance the effect of Poisson fluctuations; for example we show that the power spectrum shape at cosmic dawn has a feature corresponding to the width of the galaxy brightness distribution. We also discuss some of the consequences for 21-cm imaging, and the signature of reduced correlation between the density and radiation fields., Comment: Submitted to MNRAS on June 7th

We present the evolution of the 21-cm signal from cosmic dawn and the epoch of reionization (EoR) in an upgraded model including three subtle effects of Ly-a radiation: Ly-a heating, CMB heating (mediated by Ly-a photons), and multiple scattering of Ly-a photons. Taking these effects into account we explore a wide range of astrophysical models and quantify the impact of these processes on the global 21-cm signal and its power spectrum at observable scales and redshifts. We find that, in agreement with the literature, Ly-a and CMB heating raise the gas temperature by up to $\mathcal{O}(100)$ degrees in models with weak X-ray heating and, thus, suppress the predicted 21-cm signals. Varying the astrophysical parameters over broad ranges, we find that in the upgraded model the absorption trough of the global signal reaches a lowest floor of $-165$ mK at redshifts $z\approx 15-19$. This is in contrast with the predictions for a pure adiabatically cooling Universe, for which the deepest possible absorption is a monotonically decreasing function of cosmic time and is $-178$ mK at $z = 19$ and $-216$ mK at $z=15$, dropping to even lower values at lower redshifts (e.g. $-264$ mK at $z = 10$). With the Ly-a and CMB heating included we also observe a strong suppression in the low-redshift power spectra, with the maximum possible power (evaluated over the ensemble of models) attenuated by a factor of $6.6$ at $z=9$ and $k = 0.1$ Mpc$^{-1}$. Finally, we find that at high redshifts corresponding to cosmic dawn, the heating terms have a subdominant effect while multiple scattering of Ly-a photons is important, leading to an amplification of the power spectrum by a factor of $\sim 2-5$.

At cosmic dawn, the 21-centimeter signal from intergalactic hydrogen was driven by Lyman-$\alpha$ photons from some of the earliest stars, producing a spatial pattern that reflected the distribution of galaxies at that time. Due to the large foreground, it is thought that around redshift 20 it is only observationally feasible to detect 21-cm fluctuations statistically, yielding a limited, indirect probe of early galaxies. Here we show that 21-cm images at cosmic dawn should actually be dominated by large (tens of comoving megaparsecs), high contrast bubbles surrounding individual galaxies. We demonstrate this using a substantially upgraded semi-numerical simulation code that realistically captures the formation and 21-cm effects of the small galaxies expected during this era. Small number statistics associated with the rarity of early galaxies, combined with the multiple scattering of photons in the blue wing of the Lyman-$\alpha$ line, create the large bubbles and also enhance the 21-cm power spectrum by a factor of 2--7 and add to it a feature that measures the typical brightness of galaxies. These various signatures of discrete early galaxies are potentially detectable with planned experiments such as the Square Kilometer Array or the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array, even if the early stars formed in dark matter halos with masses as low as $10^8\, M_\odot$, ten thousand times smaller than the Milky Way halo., Comment: First submitted for publication on Apr. 5th, 2020

Radio sources are expected to have formed at high redshifts, producing an excess radiation background above the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at low frequencies. Their effect on the redshifted 21-cm signal of neutral hydrogen is usually neglected, as it is assumed that the associated background is small. Recently, an excess radio background above the level of the CMB has been proposed as one of the possible explanations for the unusually strong 21-cm signal from redshift $z\sim 17$ reported by the EDGES collaboration. As a result, the implications of a smooth and extremely strong excess radio background on both the sky-averaged (global) 21-cm signal and its fluctuations have been considered. Here we take into account the inhomogeneity of the radio background created by a population of high-redshift galaxies, and show that it adds a new type of 21-cm fluctuations to the well-known contributions of density, velocity, Ly-${\alpha}$ coupling, heating and reionization. We find that a population of high-redshift galaxies even with a moderately-enhanced radio efficiency (unrelated to the EDGES result) can have a significant effect on the 21-cm power spectrum and global signal in models with weak X-ray heating. For models that can explain the EDGES data, we conduct a large parameter survey to explore their signatures. We show that in such models the 21-cm power spectrum at $z\sim 17$ is enhanced by up to two orders of magnitude compared to the CMB-only standard case, and the shape and time evolution of the power spectrum is significantly modified by the radio fluctuations. These fluctuations are within reach of upcoming radio interferometers. We also find that these models can be significantly constrained by current and future observations of radio sources., Comment: Comments are welcome

In recent years many works have shown that unsupervised Machine Learning (ML) can help detect unusual objects and uncover trends in large astronomical datasets, but a few challenges remain. We show here, for example, that different methods, or even small variations of the same method, can produce significantly different outcomes. While intuitively somewhat surprising, this can naturally occur when applying unsupervised ML to highly dimensional data, where there can be many reasonable yet different answers to the same question. In such a case the outcome of any single unsupervised ML method should be considered a sample from a conceivably wide range of possibilities. We therefore suggest an approach that eschews finding an optimal outcome, instead facilitating the production and examination of many valid ones. This can be achieved by incorporating unsupervised ML into data visualisation portals. We present here such a portal that we are developing, applied to the sample of SDSS spectra of galaxies. The main feature of the portal is interactive 2D maps of the data. Different maps are constructed by applying dimensionality reduction to different subspaces of the data, so that each map contains different information that in turn gives a different perspective on the data. The interactive maps are intuitive to use, and we demonstrate how peculiar objects and trends can be detected by means of a few button clicks. We believe that including tools in this spirit in next generation astronomical surveys will be important for making unexpected discoveries, either by professional astronomers or by citizen scientists, and will generally enable the benefits of visual inspection even when dealing with very complex and extensive datasets. Our portal is available online at galaxyportal.space., Comment: Comments are welcome! The portal is available at https://galaxyportal.space/

Machine learning (ML) algorithms become increasingly important in the analysis of astronomical data. However, since most ML algorithms are not designed to take data uncertainties into account, ML based studies are mostly restricted to data with high signal-to-noise ratio. Astronomical datasets of such high-quality are uncommon. In this work we modify the long-established Random Forest (RF) algorithm to take into account uncertainties in the measurements (i.e., features) as well as in the assigned classes (i.e., labels). To do so, the Probabilistic Random Forest (PRF) algorithm treats the features and labels as probability distribution functions, rather than deterministic quantities. We perform a variety of experiments where we inject different types of noise to a dataset, and compare the accuracy of the PRF to that of RF. The PRF outperforms RF in all cases, with a moderate increase in running time. We find an improvement in classification accuracy of up to 10% in the case of noisy features, and up to 30% in the case of noisy labels. The PRF accuracy decreased by less then 5% for a dataset with as many as 45% misclassified objects, compared to a clean dataset. Apart from improving the prediction accuracy in noisy datasets, the PRF naturally copes with missing values in the data, and outperforms RF when applied to a dataset with different noise characteristics in the training and test sets, suggesting that it can be used for Transfer Learning., Comment: Accepted by AJ, comments are welcome! Code is available at https://github.com/ireis/PRF

We report the discovery of 31 new redshifted broad absorption line quasars (RSBALs) from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). The number of previously known such objects is 19. The identification of the new objects was enabled by calculating similarities between quasar spectra in the SDSS. Using these similarities we look for the objects that are similar to the ones in the original sample, visually inspecting only hundreds, out of over 160,000 spectra considered. We compare the performance of several similarity measures, as well as different methods of employing them, in finding the RSBALs. We find that decision tree based similarities recover the most objects, and that an ensemble of methods performs better than any single one. As the similarities are not tailored for the specific problem of finding RSBALs, they could be used for searching for other types of quasars. The similarities and the code for their calculation are available online., Comment: Submitted to MNRAS. Comments are welcome!

In this work we apply and expand on a recently introduced outlier detection algorithm that is based on an unsupervised random forest. We use the algorithm to calculate a similarity measure for stellar spectra from the Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE). We show that the similarity measure traces non-trivial physical properties and contains information about complex structures in the data. We use it for visualization and clustering of the dataset, and discuss its ability to find groups of highly similar objects, including spectroscopic twins. Using the similarity matrix to search the dataset for objects allows us to find objects that are impossible to find using their best fitting model parameters. This includes extreme objects for which the models fail, and rare objects that are outside the scope of the model. We use the similarity measure to detect outliers in the dataset, and find a number of previously unknown Be-type stars, spectroscopic binaries, carbon rich stars, young stars, and a few that we cannot interpret. Our work further demonstrates the potential for scientific discovery when combining machine learning methods with modern survey data., Comment: Published version. Data products from this work are available online, see github.com/ireis/APOGEE_tSNE_nb