Search

Today, the building sector poses a major problem concerning fossil fuel energy consumption and the corresponding emissions of local pollutants and global greenhouse gases (GHG). In addition, an increasing number of people are living in urban areas, and it is becoming challenging to provide the necessary living space and energy for heating in fast-growing cities. Currently, urban areas host approximately 50 % of the global population and generate 70 % of GHG. The core objective of this study is to analyze the historical development and to derive scenarios for the possible future development of the overall CO2 emissions in residential buildings in Vienna up to the year 2050, considering all relevant emissions from final energy, as well as the embedded emissions from the construction of new buildings, retrofitting, and rooftop apartment extensions. This study indicates the following key points: (i) The renovation of buildings by improving the thermal quality is the most favorable scenario strategy and produces the least CO2 emissions. (ii) The transition to the sustainable heating of buildings requires at least a temporary "investment" in embedded CO2 emission, e.g., in retrofitting and insulation of buildings to harvest reductions in CO2 emissions in the long run, from a smaller amount of energy used for heating. The major conclusions of this study are as follows: (i) To implement the most favorable renovation scenario, strong policy measures are required, such as standards for new buildings and for building retrofitting, as well as subsidies to ensure an accelerated refurbishment rate of the old low thermal building stock. (ii) It is important to reduce the CO2 emission of the final energy carriers, especially of district heating, by increasing the usage of renewable energy carriers such as biomass, solar, and geothermal.

Energy system optimisation models (ESOMs) are widely used for policy analyses particularly on topics related to climate change mitigation and renewable energy transition. Using ESOM to investigate regions that potentially require significant expansion of grid infrastructure requires incorporation of grid expansion problem within the optimisation. This study presents the development of SELARU, a Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model for spatially explicit long-term energy infrastructure planning. The model is used to investigate the case study of Indonesia using various spatial treatments to demonstrate the impact of detailed spatial depiction of grid expansion. Results reveal significant difference in renewable energy deployment trajectory (up to 315% increase in generation capacity) between high-resolution spatial depiction of grid expansion vis-à-vis non spatially explicit energy system optimisation. SELARU’s high-resolution energy system optimization modelling also provides detailed information on the geographical extent of grid expansion requirement, which provides more realistic insights on governance challenges of renewable energy transition. Careful consideration of spatial representation is crucial when ESOM is used to evaluate scenarios that concern technology selection such as renewable energy deployment or climate change mitigation.

Electricity generation from photovoltaic (PV) plants plays a major role in the decarbonization of the energy sector. The core objective of this paper is to identify the most important conditions for the future development of PV in order to achieve its greatest possible benefits of PV systems for society. This analysis is based on the documentation of the historical deployment of quantities of PV and on the lessons learned regarding cost developments. In addition, the improvements of PVs technical and environmental performance parameters are investigated. A major result is that the impact of PV feed-in on network capacities may be substantial. Hence, classical energy-based network charges are inadequate. Changes in tariff and pricing structures are needed especially on retail level. The major conclusions is that customers should also receive time-variable price signals that tells them the real-time value of electricity in the system and provides incentives for taking electricity from the grid or feed-in. In addition, the tariffs should have components for maximum power from and to the grid. Another conclusion is that on retail level grid parity already today provides sufficient incentives to purchase a PV system in many countries without additional financial support.

Hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles are often discussed as crucial elements in the decarbonisation of the transport systems. However, in spite of the fact that hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles have a long history, they are still seen only as a long-term mobility option. The major objective of this paper is to analyse key barriers to the increasing use of hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles. A special focus is put on their economic performance, because this will be most crucial for their future deployment. Mobility costs are calculated based on the total cost of ownership, and future developments are analysed based on technological learning. The major conclusion is that to achieve full benefits of hydrogen and fuel cells in the transport sector, it is necessary to provide stabile, long-term policy framework conditions, as well as to harmonize actions across regions to be able to take advantage of economies of scale.

The development of suitable financing models plays an important role for long-term investments in green energy infrastructures necessary to achieve energy and climate targets. In this context, it is important to state that people do not demand energy per se, but energy services such as mobility, heating, cooking and lighting. These services are provided by a combination of different energy carriers and technologies. In this paper, the focus lies on the optimal financing of innovative technologies from the society's point-of-view. Therefore, long-term financing models of new energy solutions play a key role in three core areas: (ⅰ) investments in renewable energy technologies, e.g., large solar thermal, PV, wind power systems, (ⅱ) investments in new network infrastructure for electricity, district heating, hydrogen, charging stations for battery electric vehicles, etc.; (ⅲ) investments in energy efficiency. In this paper we observe that there is practically no degree of freedom in the market regarding choice of financing parameters such as interest rate and depreciation time. In real life, all long-term investments, e.g., in the area of electricity or district heating networks, are located in a strictly regulated environment.

Increasing electricity generation from variable renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, has led to interest in additional short‐term and long‐term storage capacities. The core objective of this paper is to investigate the costs and the future market prospects of different electricity storage options, such as short‐term battery storage and long‐term storage as pumped hydro storage, as well as hydrogen and methane from power‐to‐gas conversion technologies. The method of approach is based on a formal economic framework with a dynamic component to derive scenarios up to 2040. The major conclusion is that the economic prospects of storage are not very bright. For all market‐based storage technologies it will become hard to compete in the wholesale electricity markets and for decentralized (battery) systems it will be hard to compete with the end users’ electricity price. The core problem of virtually all categories of storage are low full‐load hours (for market‐based systems) and low full charge/discharge cycles (for decentralized batteries). However, any new storage capacity should be constructed only in a coordinated way and if there is a clear sign for new excess production, in this case from variable renewables. In addition, for hydrogen and methane there could be better economic prospects in the transport sector due to both, higher energy price levels as well as a general lack of low carbon fuel alternatives. © 2020 The Authors. Greenhouse Gases: Science and Technology published by Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Since the early beginnings of the electricity system, storage has been of high relevance for balancing supply and demand. Through expanded electricity production by variable renewable technologies such as wind and photovoltaics, the discussion about new options for storage technologies is emerging. In addition, the electricity markets were subject to remarkable alterations. Some developments which describe these changes are increasing electricity generation from variable renewables and the continuing decentralization. These developments have led, among other required transformations, to demands for additional capacities of storage technologies. However, their economics will play a crucial role in their effective market penetration in the following years. The core objective of this work is to conduct a review on the relevance of storage options for electricity and its costs, economics, welfare effects, and on issues of electricity market design. In addition, based on expected Technological Learning prospects for future economics are derived. The major result is that the perspectives of electricity storage systems from an economic viewpoint are highly dependent on the storage's operation time, the nature of the overall system, availability of other flexibility options, and sector coupling. All market-based storage technologies have to prove their performance in the large electricity markets or if applied decentralized, the (battery) systems compete with the electricity prices at the final customers level when the battery costs are also taken into consideration. Yet, new storage capacities should only be added when it is clear that electricity generation from variable renewables will also be expanded in a way that excess generation is expected. This article is categorized under: Policy and Economics > Green Economics and Financing Energy and Power Systems > Energy Infrastructure Emerging Technologies > Energy Storage.

With the expansion of renewables in the electricity markets, research on electricity storage economics is needed for a better understanding of the utilization of these systems and for improving the performance of intermittent variable generation. Collected up-to-date research of electricity storage systems published in a wide range of articles with high impact factors gives a comprehensive review of the current studies regarding all relevant parameters for storage utilization in the electricity markets. Valuable research of technical characteristics from the literature is broadened with the electricity storage analyses from an economic point-of-view. Analysis of selected technologies, considering different perspectives such as their profitability, technical maturity, and environmental aspect, is a valuable addition to the previous research on electricity storage systems. Comparing conducted analysis with the selected literature, electricity storage technologies are analyzed concerning their viability in the electricity markets. Given the current outlook of the electricity market, the main problems for storage's wider integration are still energy storage costs. These can be overcome with different applications of energy storage systems, integration of new market players, or a combination of storage technologies along with the implementation of new energy policies for storage.

Road transportation is one of the largest emitters of greenhouse gas emissions. The EU set the target to reduce overall transport emissions by 60% by 2050 compared to 1990. Electric mobility is considered a proper means to achieve this goal. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are a mature technology. The high investment costs, limited driving range and a charging infrastructure that is not extensive yet are currently the main challenges. This work analyses how policies affect the dissemination of BEVs in selected countries with remarkable market shares of BEVs. The core objective is to investigate how policies affect BEV economics compared to conventional car economics. Financial policies and their effects on BEVs for the major markets of China, the USA and Europe were analysed. To do so, the total cost of ownership (TCO) was calculated for each country. The major conclusions were: (i) The investment cost of a car had the most significant impact on the TCO; (ii) Low TCO as an incentive was not enough to ensure successful BEV dissemination; (iii) Non-monetary incentives such as access to certain zones and the usage of bus lanes for BEVs combined with registration taxes, low electricity prices and high fuel prices were very favourable conditions.

Pursued climate goals require reduced greenhouse gas emissions by substituting fossil fuels with energy from renewable sources in all energy-consuming processes. On a large-scale, this can mainly be achieved through electricity from wind and sun, which are subject to intermittency. To efficiently integrate this variable energy, a coupling of the power sector to the residential, transport, industry, and commercial/trade sector is often promoted, called sector coupling (SC). Nevertheless, our literature review indicates that SC is frequently misinterpreted and its scope varies among available research, from exclusively considering the use of excess renewable electricity to a rather holistic view of integrated energy systems, including excess heat or even biomass sources. The core objective of this article is to provide a thorough understanding of the SC concept through an analysis of its origin and its main purpose, as described in the current literature. We provide a structured categorization of SC, derived from our findings, and critically discuss its remaining challenges as well as its value for renewable energy systems. We find that SC is rooted in the increasing use of variable renewable energy sources, and its main assets are the flexibility it provides for renewable energy systems, decarbonization potential for fossil-fuel-based end-consumption sectors, and consequently, reduced dependency on oil and gas extracting countries. However, the enabling technologies face great challenges in their economic feasibility because of the uncertain future development of competing solutions.

For a long time hydrogen has been considered a clean energy carrier to be applied universally and contribute to a sustainable energy system. However, in the real energy world hydrogen has not yet delivered. The major reason is that it has still to become economically feasible. With increasing electricity generation from variable renewables and its temporarily cheap surplus production, new prospects for hydrogen are on the horizon especially due to the rising need for a solution to the problem of the long-term storage of excess electricity. The core objective of this paper is to analyze the economic prospects of hydrogen use in the energy system keeping in mind two challenges: (i) integration of variable renewables in power systems, and (ii) substitution of fossil fuels in the transport sector. The future economics of hydrogen in passenger car transport is investigated regarding hydrogen production costs and possible learning effects of the fuel cell vehicles. The major conclusion is that the future perspective of hydrogen use depends on the policy framework, the full exploitation of economies-of-scale and technological learning for electrolysis as well as possible full-load hours per year. However, cost reduction of fuel cells for mobility through technological learning is essential for the economic competitiveness of hydrogen use in transport.

Since electric vehicles (EVs) have been recognized as a technology that reduces local air pollution while improving transport energy security, they have been promoted in many countries. Yet, mainly due to their high costs, especially in the case of pure battery electric vehicles, and a lack of proper infrastructure, the use of EVs is still very limited. In this paper, some of the major barriers and the future challenges are discussed. The current problems are mainly attributed to two categories: (1) the battery performances and costs, as well as battery production including issue of material availability and (2) environmental benefits of EVs depending on the sources used for the electricity generation and their carbon intensity. The major conclusions are that (1) research and development with respect to batteries has by far the highest priority and (2) it has to be ensured that the electricity used in EVs is generated largely from renewable energy sources.

Paris Agreement has influenced a higher generation of renewable systems that impact energy balancing costs and question future energy supply stability. Energy storage could be the key component for efficient power systems transition from fossil fuels to renewable sources. The core objective of this paper is to investigate the cost-effectiveness of pumped hydro storage and large-scale battery storage systems. This paper provides prospects for pumped hydro storage installation in comparison to battery storage with an overview of installed capacities in the Western Balkan countries due to renewed interest in already installed pumped hydro plants. The method of approach is based on an economic assessment of the different types of storage depending on capital-recovery-factors for the capital costs, life cycle costs, full load hours, the price spread of electricity in the day-ahead markets, and Levelized costs of energy storage. Sensitivity analysis of the market prices is conducted. The major results of these investigations show the economic justification of pumped hydro storage systems implementation, their role in grid flexibility, and their influence on electricity market competitiveness. Levelized storage costs of 339 €/MWh for sodium-sulfur batteries show considerable potential for new installations, as compared to 125 €/MWh for pumped hydro storage.

In recent years rising quantities of electricity generated from new variable renewable energy sources (VRES) have influenced the structure of electricity markets in many countries. The major aim of this work is to investigate the conditions required to head towards a sustainable and more democratic electricity supply system by using even higher amounts of VRES for the example of Austria. The most important result of this investigation is that an approach based on market principles – including flexibility and the final customers – is favourable and will ensure that competition at the service level rather than capacity payments will be the basis for future market designs of the electricity system. The transformation towards a sustainable and more democratic as well as increasingly competitive future electricity supply system is likely to be based on different paradigms of “new thinking”. This means that the fundamental structures of the overall electricity system will change. It will be based on changing from the old inflexible one-way electricity delivery system to a very flexible one with a two or multi-way flow of electricity. Regarding the case study of the Austrian electricity system the major finding is that up to 2030 RES can contribute to electricity generation to the same extent as electricity demand is expected to be. This implies a growth to about 16 TWh Wind (in 2020: 7 TWh) and 12 TWh PV (in 2020: 1 TWh). However, to meet demand on an hourly base over the whole year even after having implemented additional storage capacities and several flexibility measures on the demand-side an amount of about 2 TWh electricity (compared to 10 TWh in 2019) has to be generated from different gas-based power plants (e.g. natural or biomass-based gases).

The number of demonstration projects with fuel cell buses has been increasing worldwide. The goal of this paper is to analyse prospects and barriers for fuel cell buses focusing on their economic-, technical-, and environmental performance. Our results show that the prices of fuel cell buses, although decreasing over time, are still about 40% higher than those of diesel buses. With the looming ban of diesel vehicles, and current limitations of battery electric vehicles, fuel cell buses could become a viable alternative in the mid-to long-term. With the requirements for a better integration of renewable energy sources in the transport system, interest in hydrogen is rising. Hydrogen produced from renewables used in fuel cell buses has the potential to save about 93% of CO2 emissions in comparison to diesel buses. Yet, from environmental point-of-view it has to be ensured that hydrogen is produced from renewables. Currently, the major barrier, for a faster penetration of fuel cell buses are their high purchase prices, which could be significantly reduced with the increasing number of buses through technological learning. The final conclusion is that a tougher transport policy framework is needed which fully reflects the environmental impact of different buses used.

Interactions between different energy carriers (electricity, heat and gas) are considered beneficial for using renewable energy and reducing carbon emissions in the energy system. Nevertheless, the establishment of such hybrid grids or systems, also called multi-, integrated or smart energy systems, remains relatively unexplored. The concept is characterised by great complexity, questioning the common isolated view of energy grids. This paper analyses the changing requirements from historically grown, isolated energy grids towards renewable hybrid energy systems and the associated potential and challenges. A hybrid grid offers alternative use options, which make energy production and consumption more flexible. No peer-reviewed research provides quantitative analysis on the expected utilisation of the electricity, gas and thermal grid in a hybrid grids scenario. However, the traditional grids will compete among each other and increasingly with distributed power generation and consumption by prosumers. In addition, a reversal and reduction of the gas grid and possible new structures of a hydrogen network have to be considered. To achieve the desired savings in energy demand and carbon emissions while maintaining the security of supply and economic feasibility in hybrid energy systems, appropriate technologies, infrastructure financing, integrated system planning based on the relevant data and supportive market frameworks are required.

Long term planning of energy system’s development becomes closely connected to analysis of day-ahead power markets, market coupling and dynamics of integration of both, renewable energy sources and demand response technologies. In this study a scenario approach with minimization of marginal cost of generated electricity is used to investigate and quantify the influence of investments in generation units for the observed zone and the commitment of units in the surrounding zones. Dispa-SET software was used for modelling of a case study which included eight zones connected in the electricity market. Year 2016 was selected as referent, while future scenarios in 2030 are created with different strategic decision made in each of the zones. Results demonstrate the influence of different strategic pathways in different zones, through electricity generation and levels of storage capacities in the investigated zone and neighbouring zones and cross-border electrical energy flows. If most of the zones are pursuing unambitious strategies (2030a), marginal cost of electricity is double in comparison to the most ambitious case, while moderate approach in the most zones brings the cost reduction of 20%. Ambitious scenario 2030c for all zones results in the least cost of electricity, 30% of the cost in scenario 2030.

The inexhaustible availability of solar irradiance and wind speed makes these natural resources major contributors to a CO2 neutral energy system. Since these natural resources interact with temperatures, this paper aims at determining their correlation with temperature derived heating and cooling degree-hours (HDH and CDH) historically and based on climate projections towards 2100. The case study investigates demand and supply balancing requirements in three European climate regions Spain, Austria and northern Europe. Two approaches are used to analyse the hourly correlation on different time scales and the relationship of daily and weekly totals assuming storage. Understanding these interrelations provides a basis for appropriate planning and forecasting in smart energy systems. While solar irradiance does correlate strongly with CDH on hourly basis, achieving 0.80 in Spanish locations and 0.60 in Austria, the relation between wind speed and heating demand is more complex only reaching moderate (0.40–0.59) correlation with monthly storage in all regions. The relationship between solar irradiance and heating needs, by contrast, seems promising in central and southern Europe by applying daily storage to reach moderate to strong (0.40–0.79) results. While HDH will lose importance mostly in Madrid, but also in Vienna and Stockholm, CDH will increase. The implications for final energy demand, however, require consideration of additional parameters, such as energy efficiency measures on building insulation. Smart energy systems, therefore, should embrace the positive correlation between solar irradiance and CDH, and account for at least monthly storage of potential wind power to use VRE for heating and cooling efficiently.

This paper compares and discusses possible greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions due to different policy measures implemented in passenger car transport in the EU-15. The major instruments analyzed are fuel and registration taxes, support measures for biofuels as well as standards for specific CO 2 emissions from new passenger cars. The methodology applied is based on scenarios for the dynamic development of GHG emissions and energy consumption depending on implemented policies. Using the ALTER-MOTIVE model, created in the scope of an EU-funded project, in a dynamic framework a Business as usual and a Policy scenario are compared to extract the impacts of policies up to 2030. The major result is that in total, GHG emissions could be reduced at least by 33% in a selected Policy scenario compared to a Business-as-usual scenario up to 2030. In the future only a broad portfolio of different policy instruments and alternative technologies and fuels can reduce energy consumption and the resulting GHG emissions remarkably.

In this paper we analyse optimal sizing of grid connected rooftop photovoltaic systems from a household’s perspective. We estimate the profit maximizing size for more than 800 households in Austria for various electricity tariffs and subsidy schemes considering economies of scale related to the investment costs of photovoltaic systems in the size range of 1–20 kW of installed capacity. Size dependent investment costs are estimated from data on photovoltaic systems installed in Austria from 2008 to 2013. We then take a social cost perspective and relate the results to the total investment costs to install a certain amount of capacity in residential areas. We find that in the presence of economies of scale substantial cost inefficiencies can occur resulting from incentives to install relatively small systems. Depending on the compensation scheme the simulated optimal system size can be as low as 2 kW resulting in high costs per capacity. Subsidy design and tariff regulations can be adopted to incentivize larger photovoltaic systems in the residential sector which would reduce the costs of achieving a certain level of distributed PV generation. It is estimated that for a minimum system size of 5 kW total investment costs for subsidised residential photovoltaic systems in Austria from 2008 to 2013 could have been 2.2% lower for the same amount of installed capacity. We further argue that the strict focus on onsite use of electricity from photovoltaic systems in the residential area is not necessarily desirable from a social cost perspective because it can lead to small and therefore more expensive photovoltaic systems.

In recent years increasing shares of variable RES (renewable energy sources) have changed the structure of electricity markets in Western Europe, especially in Germany. The core objective of this paper is to provide insights on the conditions to integrate even larger quantities of variable RES into the electricity system by using market-based principles and how, straightforward, a sustainable electricity system could work. Our major finding is that we suggest a market-based approach to ensure that competitive forces rather than governmental interferences as capacity mechanisms shape the future of the energy system. The major conclusions of this analysis are: The transition towards a competitive and sustainable future electricity system will be based on an approach of “new thinking” which is to accept a paradigm shift in the whole electricity system. This includes switching to a more flexible and smarter system allowing a greater scope for demand participation, storage options and other flexibility measures. Developing such a system implies also that no politically motivated capacity mechanisms are needed.

Problems of transport become more pressing with increasing urbanisation. Although EVs (electric vehicles) are considered to contribute to reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and local air pollution caused by passenger car transport, their use is still very modest. The core objective of this paper is to identify the major impact factors for the broader dissemination of EVs in urban areas. We compare and analyse cities selected in nine different countries which are active in dissemination of EVs. The most important recommendation for policy makers is that all monetary and non-monetary promotion measures implemented should depend on the environmental benignity of the electricity generation mix. From society's point of view the promotion of EVs make sense only if it is ensured that a major share of electricity they use is generated from renewables. Since the final goal is not just to increase the number of EVs but to reduce emissions, cities also have to consider other e-mobility options such as trolleybuses, metros, trams and electro buses, as well as promote walking and biking, especially for short distances.

The transport sector accounts for about one quarter of the global carbon dioxide emissions. It is dominated by fossil fuels, leading to different negative impacts on humans and the environment. Over the last years, interest in alternative automotive powertrains such as different types of electric vehicles as well as low-carbon fuels has been increasing. The main objective of this paper is to provide review of the current state of the major renewable energy systems in road transport focusing on the EU. Based on a detailed literature review, the major prospects and impediments for the future use of biofuels, renewable electricity and green hydrogen in road transport are discussed considering policies implemented, as well as emission reduction targets set for the future with a special focus on passenger car transport. The major conclusions are: (i) The prospects of biofuels depend on their future economic and environmental performance as well as on land availability and the food versus tank discussion. (ii) The high investment costs of battery- and fuel cell electric vehicles are still a major barrier for their faster market penetration but they could be reduced in future due to technological learning. In addition, their contribution to the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions is achievable only in combination with the increasing use of renewable energy sources in electricity generation.

In recent years the electricity system has started to undergo significant changes. Three major developments are underpinning these changes: (i) the rapid digitalization of the energy system leading to smart grids and increasing flexibility in the system; (ii) the increasing electricity generation from variable renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar; and (iii) the continuing decentralization of electricity generation leading to more and more prosumagers (consumers, which also produce energy and store it) instead of former consumers. Among other necessary changes these developments have led to calls for additional storage capacities. The core objective of this paper is to investigate the possible role of electricity storage in such smart energy systems. We consider all relevant types of storage: short-term ones such as pumped hydro storage, small and large stationary battery and the battery of electric vehicles as well as long-term storage such as hydrogen and methane from power-to-gas conversion technologies and compressed air energy storage. The major conclusions of this analysis are: In recent years the options for placing storage in smart energy systems as well as types of storage have been increasing significantly. However, low number of full-load hours is still the major problem of all electricity storage options.

This chapter documents the technical development of different generations of nuclear power plants and provides an outlook for possible future concepts and their market prospects. The objective is to assess whether there is really significant technological progress on the horizon and whether these “new” concepts have prospects to become cost-effective. A major conclusion is that most of the so-called Generation IV concepts have already been discussed in the 1950s. At that time, they have not been pursued further due to problems such as costs, limiting factors in material properties and problems in appropriately controlling the fission processes. Yet, since about 2000 a modest revival of the discussion on these concepts is observed, obviously mainly motivated by securing the flow of public money for nuclear research and the broad recognition that with present reactor concepts the nuclear industry will not succeed.

In recent years increasing shares of variable renewable energy sources (RES) have changed the structure of electricity markets in several countries. The core objective of this paper is to provide insights into the conditions necessary to bring about a more democratic and sustainable electricity system by integrating even larger quantities of variable RES. Our major finding is that a market-based approach would ensure that competitive forces rather than governmental interferences – such as capacity mechanisms – shape the future of the electricity markets. This transition towards a competitive and sustainable future electricity system will be based on an approach of “new thinking” which requires a paradigm shift in the whole electricity system. This includes switching to a more flexible and smarter concept allowing a greater scope for demand participation, storage options and other flexibility measures.

Commercial nuclear power was once depicted as an infinite source of energy to meet growing energy demand. In spite of costs increases, several reactor accidents and remaining challenges regarding radioactive waste, nuclear reactors still play an important role in the energy policy of several countries. However, the future use of nuclear power is a disputed issue in the policy community. There is wide disagreement about the scale of the future use of nuclear power for electricity generation.