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Introduction Mycotoxins are harmful contaminants for human and animal health; their presence also impacts crop production and economies worldwide. They are frequently present in various African staple foods. Purpose In this study, a multi-mycotoxin analysis approach was implemented to reveal mycotoxin contamination of important staple foods in Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Methods A multi-mycotoxin analysis approach based on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with electrospray interface operated in positive mode (ESI+) and quadrupole mass analyzer was used. Twenty-five mycotoxins were investigated in 18 samples of staple foods collected in different markets in Kinshasa city, including maize flour (n=8), cassava flour (n=5), and peanut paste (n=5). Results Twenty mycotoxins were present in these samples at quantifiable levels. The maize flour samples were the most contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (87.5%), total aflatoxin (AFT) (100%), fumonisin B1 (FB1) (87.5%), deoxynivalenol (DON) (75%), and nivalenol (NIV) (75%). Emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin (BEA), enniatin B (ENN B), alternariol (AOH), and alternariol mono-methyl ether (AME) were more frequent in maize flour. The study found that 25% of maize flour and 20% of peanut paste samples exceeded the European Commission’s regulatory limits for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total aflatoxins (AFT). Additionally, ochratoxin A (OTA) was detected in one maize sample at a concentration above the regulatory limit. This could expose consumers to their genotoxic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressive effects. As for OTA, there are fears of its harmful effects, including nephrotoxicity and mutagenicity. The aflatoxin/fumonisin (AF/F) combination was more frequently observed (50% of all samples) than AF/DON, DON/F, and AF/OTA combinations. Conclusion Data from this exploratory study highlight a possible health risk for the population of Kinshasa through the consumption of maize flour, as well as the need for continuous monitoring of mycotoxins in this staple food that is increasingly being consumed across the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Mycotoxins are abiotic hazards whose contamination occurs at the pre- and post-harvest stages of the maize value chain, with animal exposure through contaminated feed leading to their excretion into milk. Currently, only aflatoxin M1 is regulated in milk products. Since feed materials and complete feed present a multi-mycotoxin composition and are the main mycotoxin source into milk, it is important to recognize the occurrence of multiple toxins and their co-occurrence in this highly consumed food product. The aim of this study was to determine the content of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in milk samples, which allowed for evaluating the occurrence and co-occurrence patterns of different mycotoxins known to contaminate feed materials and complete animal feed. Human exposure considering the occurrence patterns obtained was also estimated. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, and emerging mycotoxins were among the mycotoxins found to be present in the 100 samples analyzed. Concentrations ranged from 0.006 to 16.3 μg L−1, with no sample exceeding the AFM1 maximum level. Though several mycotoxins were detected, no exceeding values were observed considering the TDI or PMTDI. It can be concluded that the observed exposure does not pose a health risk to milk consumers, though it is important to recognize vulnerable age groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat grains are susceptible to contamination with various natural mycotoxins including regulated and emerging mycotoxins. This study surveyed the natural presence of regulated mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), and emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs such as ENA, ENA1, ENB, ENB1) and Alternaria mycotoxins (i.e., alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), and altenuene (ALT)) in wheat grains randomly collected from eight provinces across China in 2021. The results revealed that each wheat grain sample was detected with at least one type of mycotoxin. The detection rates of these mycotoxins ranged from 7.1% to 100%, with the average occurrence level ranging from 1.11 to 921.8 µg/kg. DON and TeA were the predominant mycotoxins with respect to both prevalence and concentration. Approximately 99.7% of samples were found to contain more than one toxin, and the co-occurrence of ten toxins (DON + ZEN + ENA + ENA1 + ENB + ENB1 + AME + AOH + TeA + TEN) was the most frequently detected combination. The dietary exposure to different mycotoxins among Chinese consumers aged 4–70 years was as follows: 0.592–0.992 µg/kg b.w./day for DON, 0.007–0.012 µg/kg b.w./day for ZEN, 0.0003–0.007 µg/kg b.w./day for BEA and ENNs, 0.223–0.373 µg/kg b.w./day for TeA, and 0.025–0.041 µg/kg b.w./day for TEN, which were lower than the health-based guidance values for each mycotoxin, with the corresponding hazard quotient (HQ) being far lower than 1, implying a tolerable health risk for Chinese consumers. However, the estimated dietary exposure to AME and AOH was in the range of 0.003–0.007 µg/kg b.w./day, exceeding the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) value of 0.0025 µg/kg b.w./day, demonstrating potential dietary risks for Chinese consumers. Therefore, developing practical control and management strategies is essential for controlling mycotoxins contamination in the agricultural systems, thereby ensuring public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recovery of biomolecules from food industry by-products is of major relevance for a circular economy strategy. However, by-products' contamination with mycotoxins represents a drawback for their reliable valorization for food and feed, hampering their application range, especially as food ingredients. Mycotoxin contamination occurs even in dried matrices. There is a need for the implantation of monitoring programs, even for by-products used as animal feed, since very high levels can be reached. This systematic review aims to identify the food by-products that have been studied from 2000 until 2022 (22 years) concerning mycotoxins' contamination, distribution, and prevalence in those by-products. PRISMA ("Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses") protocol was performed via two databases (PubMed and SCOPUS) to summarize the research findings. After the screening and selection process, the full texts of eligible articles (32 studies) were evaluated, and data from 16 studies were considered. A total of 6 by-products were assessed concerning mycotoxin content; these include distiller dried grain with solubles, brewer's spent grain, brewer's spent yeast, cocoa shell, grape pomace, and sugar beet pulp. Frequent mycotoxins in these by-products are AFB1, OTA, FBs, DON, and ZEA. The high prevalence of contaminated samples, which surpasses the limits established for human consumption, thus limiting their valorization as ingredients in the food industry. Co-contamination is frequent, which can cause synergistic interactions and amplify their toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are compounds produced by several fungi that contaminate agricultural fields and, either directly or by carry-over, final food products. Animal exposure to these compounds through contaminated feed can lead to their excretion into milk, posing threats to public health. Currently, aflatoxin M1 is the sole mycotoxin with a maximum level set in milk by the European Union, as well as the most studied. Nonetheless, animal feed is known to be contaminated by several groups of mycotoxins with relevance from the food safety point of view that can be carried over into milk. To evaluate the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in this highly consumed food product it is crucial to develop precise and robust analytical methodologies towards their determination. In this sense, an analytical method for the simultaneous identification of 23 regulated, non-regulated, and emerging mycotoxins in raw bovine milk using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was validated. A modified QuEChERS protocol for extraction purposes was used, and further validation was performed by assessing the selectivity and specificity, limits of detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ), linearity, repeatability, reproducibility, and recovery. The performance criteria were compliant with mycotoxin-specific and general European regulations for regulated, non-regulated, and emerging mycotoxins. The LOD and LOQ ranged between 0.001 and 9.88 ng mL−1 and 0.005 and 13.54 ng mL−1, respectively. Recovery values were between 67.5 and 119.8%. The repeatability and reproducibility parameters were below 15 and 25%, respectively. The validated methodology was successfully applied to determine regulated, non-regulated, and emerging mycotoxins in raw bulk milk from Portuguese dairy farms, proving the importance of widening the monitoring scope of mycotoxins in dairy products. Additionality, this method presents itself as a new strategic and integrated biosafety control tool for dairy farms for the analysis of these natural and relevant human risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spectrum of major and emerging mycotoxins in sesame and soybean grains from the six zones of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria was determined using Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A total of 47 samples (24 sesame and 23 soybean were collected from farmers’ stores. Seven regulated mycotoxins in sesame and five in soybean including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) were detected. However, concentrations were generally lower than regulatory limits set in the EU for raw grains with the exception of ochratoxin A (OTA) exhibiting a maximum concentration level of 23.1 µg kg-1 in one of the soybean samples. This is the first report concerning the contamination of sesame and soybean in Abuja, FCT-Nigeria with the emerging mycotoxins addressed by recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) opinion papers totalling 10 in number. These include beauvericin (BEA), moniliformin (MON), sterigmatocystin (STE), altertoxin-I (ATX-I), alternariol (AOH), alternariol methylether (AME) though at relatively low µg kg-1 range. This preliminary data indicate that sesame and soybean might be relatively safe commodities in view of the profile of mycotoxins. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1307184

The spectrum of major and emerging mycotoxins in sesame and soybean grains from the six zones of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria was determined using Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A total of 47 samples (24 sesame and 23 soybean were collected from farmers' stores. Seven regulated mycotoxins in sesame and five in soybean including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) were detected. However, concentrations were generally lower than regulatory limits set in the EU for raw grains with the exception of ochratoxin A (OTA) exhibiting a maximum concentration level of 23.1 µg kg-1 in one of the soybean samples. This is the first report concerning the contamination of sesame and soybean in Abuja, FCT-Nigeria with the emerging mycotoxins addressed by recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) opinion papers totalling 10 in number. These include beauvericin (BEA), moniliformin (MON), sterigmatocystin (STE), altertoxin-I (ATX-I), alternariol (AOH), alternariol methylether (AME) though at relatively low µg kg-1 range. This preliminary data indicate that sesame and soybean might be relatively safe commodities in view of the profile of mycotoxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dried cassava products are perceived as one of the potential sources of mycotoxin ingestion in human foods. Processing either contributes to the reduction of toxins or further exposes products to contamination by microorganisms that release metabolic toxins into the products. Thus, the prevalence of microbial metabolites in 373 processed cassava products was investigated in Nigeria. With the use of liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the constituent analysis, a few major mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1 and G1, fumonisin B1 and B2, and zearalenone) regulated in food crops by the Commission of the European Union were found at concentrations which are toxicologically acceptable in many other crops. Some bioactive compounds were detected at low concentrations in the cassava products. Therefore, the exposure of cassava consumers in Nigeria to regulated mycotoxins was estimated to be minimal. The results provide useful information regarding the probable safety of cassava products in Nigeria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plantain is a popular dietary staple in Central and West African countries due to its versatility and excellent nutritional value. Mature unripe plantain finger is usually processed into dried chips by processors using open sun-drying method to reduce the moisture content and extends its shelf life, but without controlling the unit operations that affect product quality. Thus, this study aimed at assessing the mycotoxin profile of solar tent-dried and open sun-dried plantain chips in Nigeria. Fifty (50) dried plantain chips [10 samples produced from the solar tent-dried, 10 samples from open sun dried, and 30 samples from local processors (9 from Akure South and 21 from Idanre Local Governments)] were analyzed for constituent mycotoxins using Liquid Chromatography Tandem-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The result reveals that all the regulated mycotoxins (Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, Ochratoxin A, Fumonisin B1, Fumonisin B2, Zearalenone, T-2 Toxin, HT-2 Toxin and, Deoxynivalenol) were below the detectable limits in the dried plantain chips. Aflatoxin B1 and G1, which were considered as the most regulated mycotoxin, were below the limits of detection (0.16–0.22 μg/kg) in all the samples. Only 23 analytes were detected at concentrations higher than their respective limits of detection (LOD) in 2% or more of the 50 dried plantain chips investigated, with reference to the prevalence of the non-regulated mycotoxins. Thus, all regulated mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium as stipulated by the Commission of the European Union were found at concentrations which are toxicologically acceptable in many other crops, particularly in the solar tent-dried plantain chips compared to those from the open sun-dried and local processors. Therefore, the use of a solar tent in drying plantain chips and other agricultural products is encouraged for the safety of human consumption. The outcome of this study provides useful information regarding the possible safety of plantain chips in Nigeria. • Regulated mycotoxins were below the detectable limits in the dried plantain chips. • The non-regulated mycotoxins analyte detected in the dried plantain chips were 23. • Solar tent-dried plantain chips have less mycotoxin metabolites concentrations. • Dried plantain chips have remarkably very low regulated mycotoxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]