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Background PSYCHOPHYSICAL Stevens (1975, pp. 32, 102-109, 271-272), drawing on data of Stevens and Greenbaum (1966), pointed out that plots of average magnitude estimates (ME) (with all magnitudes represented in [...], This article is based on the magnitude production representation in Luce's (2004, 2011) global psychophysical theories for subjective intensity of both binary and unary continua. It is shown that the slopes of certain predicted linear relationships for magnitude production and estimation differ when, in the two procedures, the respondent-generated reference signals differ. This contrasts with Stevens's (1975) regression effect, which arises because the exponents of the psychophysical scale differs with procedural changes. Four experiments are suggested to evaluate these predictions, which, importantly, should be analyzed for individual respondents, not data averaged over respondents.

Masip, et al. (2009) conducted a study in which observers had to make truth-lie judgments at the beginning, middle, or end of a series of videotaped statements. They found a decline in truth judgments over time and explained this finding in terms of information processing mode. Recently, Elaad (2010) challenged this explanation and contended that the decline could be a result of regression toward the mean. In the present paper, it is argued that because Masip, et al. took multiple Moment 1 judgments over time and then averaged across judgments, regression toward the mean was extremely unlikely. Furthermore, the decrease in truth judgments was found under several separate conditions; this cannot be explained by random fluctuations alone. Finally, Masip, et al.'s data were re-analyzed adjusting for the effects of regression toward the mean. The outcomes of these analyses were the same as those reported in the original article. DOI 10.2466/03.07.PR0.107.5.587-592

Frequency judgments tend to be subadditive: A category's frequency is judged to be lower than the summed frequency of its subcategories. Thus, by splitting or merging categories, subjective frequencies increase or decrease, respectively. We offer an account of this phenomenon that is based on the statistical principle of regression. Because empirical information is never noise-free, high frequencies are underestimated, and low frequencies are overestimated. The underlying regression principle explains available evidence on subadditivity and allows novel predictions. The findings from two experiments supported predictions derived from the regression account of frequency estimates for split and merged categories: Subadditivity varied systematically as a function of the two parameters determining regression (extremity and reliability). More extreme frequencies and reduced reliability led to increased regression effects. Theoretical implications for subadditive judgments (of frequency, probability, and/or value) are discussed. Although other factors may contribute to subadditivity, their influence needs to exceed the baseline expected from the regression model alone.

Over 50 years ago Payne and Jones (1957) developed what has been labeled the traditional reliable difference formula that continues to be useful as a significance test for the difference between two test scores. The traditional reliable difference is based on the standard error of measurement (SEM) and has been updated to a confidence interval approach. As an alternative to the traditional reliable difference, this article presents the regression-based reliable difference that is based on the standard error of estimate (SEE) and estimated true scores. This new approach should be attractive to clinicians preferring the idea of scores regressing toward the mean. The new approach is also presented in confidence interval form with an interpretation that can be viewed as a statement of all hypotheses that are tenable and consistent with the observed data and has the backing of several authorities. Two well-known conceptualizations for true score confidence intervals are the traditional and regression-based. Now clinicians favoring the regression-based conceptualization are not restricted to the use of traditional model when testing score differences using confidence intervals. Keywords: difference scores; reliable difference; confidence interval; test of significance; standard error of measurement; standard error of estimate; estimated true scores

Theories that posit multiplicative relationships between variables are common in psychology. A. G. Greenwald et al. (2002) recently presented a theory that explicated relationships between group identification, group attitudes, and self-esteem. Their theory posits a multiplicative relationship between concepts when predicting a criterion variable. Greenwald et al. suggested analytic strategies to test their multiplicative model that researchers might assume are appropriate for testing multiplicative models more generally. The theory and analytic strategies of Greenwald et al. are used as a case study to show the strong measurement assumptions that underlie certain tests of multiplicative models. It is shown that the approach used by Greenwald et al. can lead to declarations of theoretical support when the theory is wrong as well as rejection of the theory when the theory is correct. A simple strategy for testing multiplicative models that makes weaker measurement assumptions than the strategy proposed by Greenwald et al. is suggested and discussed. Keywords: regression, interactions, cross-products, implicit association test

Two methods to jointly model age of dam (AOD) and age of animal in random regression analyses of growth in Gelbvieh cattle were examined. The first method (M1) was analogous to the multiple-trait analysis and consisted of AOD as a nested class variable and a cubic polynomial regression on age nested within birth, weaning, and yearly weights. The second method (M2) used two-dimensional splines, with age knots at 150, 205, 270, 340, and 390 d. The AOD knots were placed at 725, 1,464, and 2,189 d. These selected knots were used to form a two-dimensional grid containing 15 knots, each representing a specific age and AOD combination. A data set containing Gelbvieh growth records was split along contemporary groups into two data sets. Data set 1 contained 316,078 records and was used for prediction by mixed-model equations. Data set 2 contained 164,167 records and was used for cross validation. In the complete data set, only 90 and 30% of animals with birth weight had records on weaning and yearling weights, respectively. Models were evaluated based on [R.sup.2], average squared error (ASE), percent bias, and plots of solutions. The ASE for weights associated with birth weight, weaning weight, and yearling weight for Ml were 15, 505, and 703 [kg.sup.2]. With M2, large jumps in fixed-effect estimates were observed outside the two-dimensional grid. To eliminate this problem, weighted one-dimensional splines were used for extrapolation beyond the two-dimensional grid. For M2 with weighted spline extrapolation, the ASE were 15, 542, and 777 [kg.sup.2] for birth weight, weaning weight, and yearling weight, respectively. Creation of optimal two-dimensional splines is difficult when data are clustered. Despite such difficulties, the two-dimensional spline was capable of jointly and continuously modeling AOD and age of animal. Key Words: Cross Validation, Polynomial Regression, Two-Dimensional Spline

Byline: Wendy A. Goldberg (1), Kathy Osann (2), Pauline A. Filipek (3), Tracy Laulhere (1), Kelly Jarvis (1), Charlotte Modahl (3), Pamela Flodman (3), M. Anne Spence (3) Keywords: Autism; regression; assessment Abstract: Understanding of regression in autism has been hampered by variability in parental and clinical recognition and reporting of lost skills. This study introduced an instrument, the Regression Supplement Form, intended to supplement the Autism Diagnosis Interview--Revised and yield precise information about the types and timing of regression and events concurrent with loss and regain of skills. Data were collected from parents of 44 children (38 male, 6 female mean age = 6 years) with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (37 Autistic Disorder, 7 Pervasive Developmental Disorder--Not Otherwise Specified). Parental responses on the Autism Diagnosis Interview--Revised indicated loss of skills during early development. The profile of regression that emerged included loss of skills between 18 and 21 months, on average, with language-only regression less common than loss of other, nonlanguage skills only or of full regression (loss of language and other skills). The onset of regression typically was gradual in nonlanguage areas and split between gradual and sudden loss for language skills. Some of the children were developing atypically before they lost other, nonlanguage skills, that is, their age at first words was delayed until age 2 years or older. Parents tended to attribute loss to medical factors such as immunizations. Many of the children regained some of the lost skills when they were 3.5--5 years of age, with therapeutic and instructional interventions given credit for the regain. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California (2) Department of Medicine, University of California Irvine Medical Center, Irvine, California (3) Department of Pediatrics, University of California Irvine Medical Center, Irvine, California Article History: Registration Date: 05/10/2004

Common regression models are often structurally inconsistent with strategic interaction. We demonstrate that this 'strategic misspecification' is really an issue of structural (or functional form) misspecification. The misspecification can be equivalently written as a form of omitted variable bias, where the omitted variables are nonlinear terms arising from the players' expected utility calculations and often from data aggregation. We characterize the extent of the specification error in terms of model parameters and the data and show that typical regressions models can at times give exactly the opposite inferences versus the true strategic data-generating process. Researchers are recommended to pay closer attention to their theoretical models, the implications of those models concerning their statistical models, and vice versa.

Michael Balint regarded psychoanalysis as a relationship between two people as well as a technique. He identified the Oedipus complex, the concept of 'basic fault,' and creativity and insight as various stages in psychological maturity, with the libido taking different roles at each stage.

Byline: Michael Davidovitch (1), Lilach Glick (2), Gabriela Holtzman (3), Emanuel Tirosh (3), Marilyn P. Safir (4) Keywords: Austism; developmental regression; maternal reports Abstract: Developmental regression among children with autism is a common phenomenon of unknown origin. The purpose of this study was to identify the differences between children with autism who reportedly regressed with those who did not regress. A representative group of 39 mothers were interviewed (40 children--1 pair of twin girls) about familial, pregnancy, perinatal, as well as medical history and developmental milestones. The study focused on mothers' perceptions of developmental regression. Nineteen children (47.5 %) regressed in verbal and non-verbal communication and social but not in motor abilities. Mean age of regression was 24 months, with 11 children who regressed before and 8 after this age. No significant differences were reported by mothers of children who did or did not regress. More mothers of children who regressed, than those of children who did not, expressed guilt feelings regarding the development of autism, and almost all of them had an 'explanation' for the possible mechanisms that might have influenced their children's developmental course. In conclusion, developmental regression in our population appears to be a typical event in the natural course of autism. There is little difference between those children who regressed and those who did not regress in maternal perceptions and reports of development, family, and medical history. Author Affiliation: (1) Bruce Rappoport Faculty of Medicine Technion--Israel Institute of Technology, The Hannah Khoushy Child Development Center, Bnai Zion Medical Center, Haifa, Israel (2) Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel (3) Bruce Rappoport Faculty of Medicine Technion--Israel Institute of Technology, The Hannah Khoushy Child Development Center, Bnai Zion Medical Center, Haifa, Israel (4) Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel Article History: Registration Date: 09/10/2004

The evaluation of individual cognitive change has relied heavily upon the raw change score, defined simply as the difference between follow-up and baseline scores. However, raw change scores are susceptible to the confounding effects of both regression-to-the-mean and practice effect. The clinical relevance of raw change scores for the older adult is also obscured by normal, age-related cognitive change. The present study illustrates the use of a standardized regression-based (SRB) methodology to generate an alternative to the raw change score; the SRB change score. SRB change scores provide a standardized alternative to the raw change score, allowing the clinician to evaluate the magnitude of change on one or more variables along a common metric that controls for practice effect, regression-to-the-mean, and normal cognitive decline. Case data illustrate how SRB change scores can identify clinically relevant cognitive change in the individual older adult patient.

The fixated/regressed typology of child molesters has been widely used in classifying molesters. Although the terminology is psychodynamic in origin, cognitive correlations for the two types can be identified. A research instrument designed to assess child molester cognitions, attitudes, and background characteristics was administered to 94 molesters, one-third of whom had been identified as fixated and two-thirds as regressed. Data analysis yielded results which were generally supportive of the criteria for the two types. Fixated molesters were likely to be more child-centered, to molest male children outside the family, to come from 'broken' homes, and to use alcohol less frequently than regressed molesters. Regressed molesters were likely to be better adjusted, to molest female children outside the family and to come from intact homes.

Several factors can cause posttherapy scores to regress (relative to pretherapy scores) toward a group mean. This article focuses on regression effects that are due to measurement error, and on methods used to evaluate pre- to posttherapy score changes that attempt to take these regression effects into account. Statistical and practical problems associated with these methods are discussed. In particular, a statistical problem is identified in the most recent article that advocates use of these methods. Consequences of ignoring this problem and a way of correcting it are presented. Five practical problems encountered in using a correct classical true-score theory method of identifying reliable changes (based on derivations of H. Gulliksen [1950] and E M. Lord and M. R. Novick [1968]) are then presented. Finally, objectives of these methods are distinguished from objectives of other strategies used to evaluate changes in psychotherapy.

This essay evaluates the notions of fixation and regression in the psychoanalytic theoretical conceptualization of homosexuality. Charles Socarides has had a central role in formulating the most prominent and influential psychoanalytic metapsychological understanding of homosexuality in recent years and for that reason this essay focuses principally on him. The concepts of fixation and regression are central to his understanding and I argue that the evolution of these concepts in contemporary usage renders them irrelevant to formulating the current psychoanalytic understanding of homosexuality and that their continued use by analysts reflects a negative attitude toward homosexual behavior on the part of Socarides and many other analysts that stems from an extremely narrow and idealized conception of human development.

The existence of self-recognition in 29 subjects with varying degrees of Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type (SDAT) was studied using mirror and video techniques. The 13 subjects with moderately severe cognitive decline had mirror self-recognition while 25% of those with severe cognitive decline did not show self-recognition in the mirror test. On the other hand, only seven showed self-recognition in the video test. The disappearance of video recognition ahead of the mirror self-recognition supports the regression hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease, which states that disappearance of psychological functions is the inverse of their appearance during ontogeny.

This study tested the validity of the Haan (1965) psychological defense scales, which have shown promise for clinical and research assessment. Three subject samples participated: ex-inpatients (n = 80) from a longitudinal high-risk project, their spouses (n = 104), and private college students (n = 124). Valid defense scales were predicted to show a specific pattern of correlations with MMPI ego-strength and standard scales across all three cohorts, with measures of symptoms among the ex-inpatients, and with overall severity of pathology for all groups in a pattern consistent with Vaillant's defense model. The regression scale showed excellent validity, and projection received equivocal support, but the other scales were not validated. Denial appeared to reflect psychological health.

In 2 experiments we investigated trance logic, or the tolerance of logical incongruity, in age regression and hallucination. Experiment 1 tested 21 hypnotizable and 19 unhypnotizable subjects in an application of the real-simulating model of hypnosis. Experiment 2 tested 26 high and 19 low imagery ability subjects in an adaptation of the model to the imagination context. Subjects' experiences were investigated through the experiential analysis technique. More real than simulating subjects displayed trance logic during age regression, but they did not differ on the major measures of trance logic during hallucination. This pattern of responding occurred in both the hypnosis and the imagination contexts. Subjects' comments suggested that completeness of and belief in age regression or hallucination may play some role in trance logic. The importance of understanding trance logic from the subject's point of view is discussed.

In the Defense Mechanism Test, stimuli representing a central figure threatened by a peripheral person are presented tachistoscopically, at increasing exposure times. The threat is assumed to trigger defense mechanisms that are expressed by several types of perceptual distortions. Given that to date no experimental study has validated the discriminative power of the Defense Mechanism Test between normal controls and clinical groups, 99 normal controls and 57 nonpsychotic psychiatric outpatients were given the test. Significantly more psychiatric patients than controls were coded for presence of each of the ten main defensive signs of the Defense Mechanism Test (with a weak significance for reaction formation). Ten codings or subcodings of defense which were particularly rare in the control sample were employed to discriminate between groups. This procedure correctly allocated 85.8% of the control subjects and 85.9% of the psychiatric patients. The present findings allow a preliminary distinction between codings of defense with questionable, moderate, or strong clinical significance, in the area of nonpsychotic psychopathology.

An inventory of adaptively regressive experiences (Taft Ego Permissiveness Inventory) and the Identity Status Interview were administered to 71 college students (35 female, 36 male). As hypothesized, Moratorium status individuals (actively engaged in identity formation) showed a greater disposition to adaptive regression than did individuals in other statuses. This supports the view that adaptive regression may serve an important function in the identify formation process. Contrary to hypothesis, Achievement status individuals did not show greater disposition to adaptive regression than those in Foreclosure status. Females showed substantially greater disposition to adaptive regression than did males.

Quantitative differences in subjects' responses to selected TAT cards were studied. 70 white, female college students wrote stories in response to TAT Cards 1, 2, 3BM, 12M, and 13MF. Stories were scored for several measures of drive intensity, defensive pattern, and object rational pattern. On all measures, the several cards were associated with different patterns of response. The use of the pattern of scores on several cards (as opposed to aggregate measures summing responses to several cards) for exploration of the ebb and flow of various aspects of intrapsychic functioning is discussed.

Repeated measures designs involving nonorthogonal variables are being used with increasing frequency in cognitive psychology. Researchers usually analyze the data from such designs inappropriately, probably because the designs are not discussed in standard textbooks on regression. Two commonly used approaches to analyzing repeated measures designs are considered in this article. It is argued that both approaches use inappropriate error terms for testing the effects of independent variables. A more appropriate analysis is presented, and two alternative computational procedures for the analysis are illustrated.

A substantial minority of children suffering from Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) acquire and subsequently lose the language and communication skills during second year of life. It is reported that word loss is specific to ASD across levels of functions and severity and the loss follows a failure to progress after an initial expressive vocabulary development phase.

In this paper, we investigate vision-based navigation using the self-organizing hierarchical optimal subspace learning and inference framework (SHOSLIF) that incorporates states, and a visual attention mechanism. With states to keep the history information and regarding the incoming video input as an observation vector, the vision-based navigation is formulated as an observation-driven Markov model (ODMM). The ODMM can be realized through recursive partitioning regression. A recursive partition tree (SRPT), which maps an preprocessed current input raw image and the previous state into the current state and the next control signal, is used for efficient recursive partitioning regression. The SRPT learns incrementally: each leaning sample is learned or rejected 'on-the-fly.' The purposed scheme has been successfully applied to indoor navigation. Index Terms--Content-based retrieval, eigen-subspace method, incremental learning, nearest neighbor regression, observation-driven Markov model (ODMM), vision-based navigation.

Research performed to assess the degree to which negative organizational attributes are present during (and perhaps causing) organizational decline was based upon surveys of 334 universities and colleges, among which decline was defined based upon enrollment figures. Questionnaires were distributed among dominant internal members within these universities; the questionnaires focused on 12 negative attributes identified by earlier research in the area. The survey results indicate that: (1) indeed, declining organizations are more likely to display negative attributes than are stable or growing organizations; (2) however, these negative attributes (once thought to be evident only within declining organizations) also are present among many stable and growing organizations. Organizational perceptions of decline are also strongly influenced by the success, growth, or previous scarcity experienced by the organization.

A study purporting to show an association between social stress and attempted suicide in Hong Kong utilized an incorrect regression specification. The study was replicated with American time-series data and, using the correct specification, social stress was positively associated with suicide rates.

This study investigated whether the inclusion of ability or role clarity could increase the predictiveness of the traditional expectancy theory modal, i.e., effort = expectancy x instrumentality x valence. Both variables had an effect, but the influence of ability was much greater than that of role clarity in a sample of 285 undergraduates.