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Here, we describe the development of the FGF21 analog zalfermin (NNC0194-0499, 15 ), intended for once-weekly sc dosing. Protein engineering was needed to address inherent druggability issues of the natural FGF21 hormone. Thus, deamidation of Asp121 was solved by mutation to glutamine, and oxidation of Met168 was solved by mutation to leucine. N-terminal region degradation by dipeptidyl peptidase IV was prevented by alanine residue elongation. To prevent inactivating metabolism by fibroblast activation protein and carboxypeptidase-like activity in the C-terminal region, and to achieve t 1/2 extension (53 h in cynomolgus monkeys), we introduced a C18 fatty diacid at the penultimate position 180. The fatty diacid binds albumin in a reversible manner, such that the free fraction of zalfermin potently activates the FGF-receptor complex and retains receptor selectivity compared with FGF21, providing strong efficacy on body weight loss in diet-induced obese mice. Zalfermin is currently being clinically evaluated for the treatment of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis.

In response to three highly conserved neuropeptides, neuropeptide Y (NPY), peptide YY, and pancreatic polypeptide (PP), four G protein-coupled receptors mediate multiple essential physiological processes, such as food intake, vasoconstriction, sedation, and memory retention. Here, we report the structures of the human Y 1 , Y 2 , and Y 4 receptors in complex with NPY or PP, and the G i1 protein. These structures reveal distinct binding poses of the peptide upon coupling to different receptors, reflecting the importance of the conformational plasticity of the peptide in recognizing the NPY receptors. The N terminus of the peptide forms extensive interactions with the Y 1 receptor, but not with the Y 2 and Y 4 receptors. Supported by mutagenesis and functional studies, subtype-specific interactions between the receptors and peptides were further observed. These findings provide insight into key factors that govern NPY signal recognition and transduction, and would enable development of selective drugs.

Cholecystokinin receptors, CCK A R and CCK B R, are important neurointestinal peptide hormone receptors and play a vital role in food intake and appetite regulation. Here, we report three crystal structures of the human CCK A R in complex with different ligands, including one peptide agonist and two small-molecule antagonists, as well as two cryo-electron microscopy structures of CCK B R-gastrin in complex with G i2 and G q , respectively. These structures reveal the recognition pattern of different ligand types and the molecular basis of peptide selectivity in the cholecystokinin receptor family. By comparing receptor structures in different conformational states, a stepwise activation process of cholecystokinin receptors is proposed. Combined with pharmacological data, our results provide atomic details for differential ligand recognition and receptor activation mechanisms. These insights will facilitate the discovery of potential therapeutics targeting cholecystokinin receptors., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature America, Inc.)

Peptide drugs targeting class B1 G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can treat multiple diseases; however, there remains substantial interest in the development of orally delivered non-peptide drugs. Here, we reveal unexpected overlap between signaling and regulation of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor by the non-peptide agonist PF 06882961 and GLP-1 that was not observed for another compound, CHU-128. Compounds from these patent series, including PF 06882961, are currently in clinical trials for treatment of type 2 diabetes. High-resolution cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures reveal that the binding sites for PF 06882961 and GLP-1 substantially overlap, whereas CHU-128 adopts a unique binding mode with a more open receptor conformation at the extracellular face. Structural differences involving extensive water-mediated hydrogen bond networks could be correlated to functional data to understand how PF 06882961, but not CHU-128, can closely mimic the pharmacological properties of GLP-1. These findings will facilitate rational structure-based discovery of non-peptide agonists targeting class B GPCRs., Competing Interests: Declaration of Interests C.R.U., T.E., and S.R.-R. are employees of Novo Nordisk. P.Š. is an employee of Apigenex., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Class B G protein-coupled receptors, an important class of therapeutic targets, signal mainly through the G s class of heterotrimeric G proteins, although they do display some promiscuity in G protein binding. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we determined the structures of the human glucagon receptor (GCGR) bound to glucagon and distinct classes of heterotrimeric G proteins, G s or G i1 These two structures adopt a similar open binding cavity to accommodate G s and G i1 The G s binding selectivity of GCGR is explained by a larger interaction interface, but there are specific interactions that affect G i more than G s binding. Conformational differences in the receptor intracellular loops were found to be key selectivity determinants. These distinctions in transducer engagement were supported by mutagenesis and functional studies., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.)

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) is a class B G protein-coupled receptor that plays an important role in glucose homeostasis and treatment of type 2 diabetes. Structures of full-length class B receptors were determined in complex with their orthosteric agonist peptides, however, little is known about their extracellular domain (ECD) conformations in the absence of orthosteric ligands, which has limited our understanding of their activation mechanism. Here, we report the 3.2 Å resolution, peptide-free crystal structure of the full-length human GLP-1R in an inactive state, which reveals a unique closed conformation of the ECD. Disulfide cross-linking validates the physiological relevance of the closed conformation, while electron microscopy (EM) and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations suggest a large degree of conformational dynamics of ECD that is necessary for binding GLP-1. Our inactive structure represents a snapshot of the peptide-free GLP-1R and provides insights into the activation pathway of this receptor family.

Peptide agonists acting on the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) promote glucose-dependent insulin release and therefore represent important therapeutic agents for type 2 diabetes (T2D). Previous data indicated that an N-terminal type II β-turn motif might be an important feature for agonists acting on the GLP-1R. In contrast, recent publications reporting the structure of the full-length GLP-1R have shown the N-terminus of receptor-bound agonists in an α-helical conformation. To reconcile these conflicting results, we prepared N-terminally constrained analogues of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and exendin-4 and evaluated their receptor affinity and functionality in vitro; we then examined their crystal structures in complex with the extracellular domain of the GLP-1R and used molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations for further investigations. We report that the peptides' N-termini in all determined crystal structures adopted a type II β-turn conformation, but in vitro potency varied several thousand-fold across the series. Potency correlated better with α-helicity in our computational model, although we have found that the energy barrier between the two mentioned conformations is low in our most potent analogues and the flexibility of the N-terminus is highlighted by the dynamics simulations.

Class B G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which consist of an extracellular domain (ECD) and a transmembrane domain (TMD), respond to secretin peptides to play a key part in hormonal homeostasis, and are important therapeutic targets for a variety of diseases. Previous work has suggested that peptide ligands bind to class B GPCRs according to a two-domain binding model, in which the C-terminal region of the peptide targets the ECD and the N-terminal region of the peptide binds to the TMD binding pocket. Recently, three structures of class B GPCRs in complex with peptide ligands have been solved. These structures provide essential insights into peptide ligand recognition by class B GPCRs. However, owing to resolution limitations, the specific molecular interactions for peptide binding to class B GPCRs remain ambiguous. Moreover, these previously solved structures have different ECD conformations relative to the TMD, which introduces questions regarding inter-domain conformational flexibility and the changes required for receptor activation. Here we report the 3.0 Å-resolution crystal structure of the full-length human glucagon receptor (GCGR) in complex with a glucagon analogue and partial agonist, NNC1702. This structure provides molecular details of the interactions between GCGR and the peptide ligand. It reveals a marked change in the relative orientation between the ECD and TMD of GCGR compared to the previously solved structure of the inactive GCGR-NNC0640-mAb1 complex. Notably, the stalk region and the first extracellular loop undergo major conformational changes in secondary structure during peptide binding, forming key interactions with the peptide. We further propose a dual-binding-site trigger model for GCGR activation-which requires conformational changes of the stalk, first extracellular loop and TMD-that extends our understanding of the previously established two-domain peptide-binding model of class B GPCRs.

The human glucagon receptor, GCGR, belongs to the class B G-protein-coupled receptor family and plays a key role in glucose homeostasis and the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. Here we report the 3.0 Å crystal structure of full-length GCGR containing both the extracellular domain and transmembrane domain in an inactive conformation. The two domains are connected by a 12-residue segment termed the stalk, which adopts a β-strand conformation, instead of forming an α-helix as observed in the previously solved structure of the GCGR transmembrane domain. The first extracellular loop exhibits a β-hairpin conformation and interacts with the stalk to form a compact β-sheet structure. Hydrogen-deuterium exchange, disulfide crosslinking and molecular dynamics studies suggest that the stalk and the first extracellular loop have critical roles in modulating peptide ligand binding and receptor activation. These insights into the full-length GCGR structure deepen our understanding of the signalling mechanisms of class B G-protein-coupled receptors.

Calcitonin is a peptide hormone consisting of 32 amino acid residues and the calcitonin receptor is a Class B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). The crystal structure of the human calcitonin receptor ectodomain (CTR ECD) in complex with a truncated analogue of salmon calcitonin ([BrPhe(22)]sCT(8-32)) has been determined to 2.1-Å resolution. Parallel analysis of a series of peptide ligands showed that the rank order of binding of the CTR ECD is identical to the rank order of binding of the full-length CTR, confirming the structural integrity and relevance of the isolated CTR ECD. The structure of the CTR ECD is similar to other Class B GPCRs and the ligand binding site is similar to the binding site of the homologous receptors for the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and adrenomedulin (AM) recently published (Booe, J. M., Walker, C. S., Barwell, J., Kuteyi, G., Simms, J., Jamaluddin, M. A., Warner, M. L., Bill, R. M., Harris, P. W., Brimble, M. A., Poyner, D. R., Hay, D. L., and Pioszak, A. A. (2015) Mol. Cell 58, 1040-1052). Interestingly the receptor-bound structure of the ligand [BrPhe(22)]sCT(8-32) differs from the receptor-bound structure of the homologous ligands CGRP and AM. They all adopt an extended conformation followed by a C-terminal β turn, however, [BrPhe(22)]sCT(8-32) adopts a type II turn (Gly(28)-Thr(31)), whereas CGRP and AM adopt type I turns. Our results suggest that a type II turn is the preferred conformation of calcitonin, whereas a type I turn is the preferred conformation of peptides that require RAMPs; CGRP, AM, and amylin. In addition the structure provides a detailed molecular explanation and hypothesis regarding ligand binding properties of CTR and the amylin receptors., (© 2016 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) belongs to the secretin-like (class B) family of G protein-coupled receptors. Members of the class B family are distinguished by their large extracellular domain, which works cooperatively with the canonical seven-transmembrane (7TM) helical domain to signal in response to binding of various peptide hormones. We have combined structure-based site-specific mutational studies with molecular dynamics simulations of a full-length model of GLP-1R bound to multiple peptide ligand variants. Despite the high sequence similarity between GLP-1R and its closest structural homologue, the glucagon receptor (GCGR), nearly half of the 62 stably expressed mutants affected GLP-1R in a different manner than the corresponding mutants in GCGR. The molecular dynamics simulations of wild-type and mutant GLP-1R·ligand complexes provided molecular insights into GLP-1R-specific recognition mechanisms for the N terminus of GLP-1 by residues in the 7TM pocket and explained how glucagon-mimicking GLP-1 mutants restored binding affinity for (GCGR-mimicking) GLP-1R mutants. Structural analysis of the simulations suggested that peptide ligand binding mode variations in the 7TM binding pocket are facilitated by movement of the extracellular domain relative to the 7TM bundle. These differences in binding modes may account for the pharmacological differences between GLP-1 peptide variants., (© 2016 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

The Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) is a member of the class B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family and a well-established target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. The N-terminal extracellular domain (ECD) of GLP-1R is important for GLP-1 binding and the crystal structure of the GLP-1/ECD complex was reported previously. The first structure of a class B GPCR transmembrane (TM) domain was solved recently, but the full length receptor structure is still not well understood. Here we describe the molecular details of antibody-mediated antagonism of the GLP-1R using both in vitro pharmacology and x-ray crystallography. We showed that the antibody Fab fragment (Fab 3F52) blocked the GLP-1 binding site of the ECD directly and thereby acts as a competitive antagonist of native GLP-1. Interestingly, Fab 3F52 also blocked a short peptide agonist believed to engage primarily the transmembrane and extracellular loop region of GLP-1R, whereas functionality of an allosteric small-molecule agonist was not inhibited. This study has implications for the structural understanding of the GLP-1R and related class B GPCRs, which is important for the development of new and improved therapeutics targeting these receptors.

Liraglutide is an acylated glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogue that binds to serum albumin in vivo and is approved for once-daily treatment of diabetes as well as obesity. The aim of the present studies was to design a once weekly GLP-1 analogue by increasing albumin affinity and secure full stability against metabolic degradation. The fatty acid moiety and the linking chemistry to GLP-1 were the key features to secure high albumin affinity and GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) potency and in obtaining a prolonged exposure and action of the GLP-1 analogue. Semaglutide was selected as the optimal once weekly candidate. Semaglutide has two amino acid substitutions compared to human GLP-1 (Aib(8), Arg(34)) and is derivatized at lysine 26. The GLP-1R affinity of semaglutide (0.38 ± 0.06 nM) was three-fold decreased compared to liraglutide, whereas the albumin affinity was increased. The plasma half-life was 46.1 h in mini-pigs following i.v. administration, and semaglutide has an MRT of 63.6 h after s.c. dosing to mini-pigs. Semaglutide is currently in phase 3 clinical testing.

Class B G protein-coupled receptors are composed of an extracellular domain (ECD) and a seven-transmembrane (7TM) domain, and their signalling is regulated by peptide hormones. Using a hybrid structural biology approach together with the ECD and 7TM domain crystal structures of the glucagon receptor (GCGR), we examine the relationship between full-length receptor conformation and peptide ligand binding. Molecular dynamics (MD) and disulfide crosslinking studies suggest that apo-GCGR can adopt both an open and closed conformation associated with extensive contacts between the ECD and 7TM domain. The electron microscopy (EM) map of the full-length GCGR shows how a monoclonal antibody stabilizes the ECD and 7TM domain in an elongated conformation. Hydrogen/deuterium exchange (HDX) studies and MD simulations indicate that an open conformation is also stabilized by peptide ligand binding. The combined studies reveal the open/closed states of GCGR and suggest that glucagon binds to GCGR by a conformational selection mechanism.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) analogs are increasingly being used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. It is clear that these drugs lower blood glucose through an increase in insulin secretion and a lowering of glucagon secretion; in addition, they lower body weight and systolic blood pressure and increase heart rate. Using a new monoclonal antibody for immunohistochemistry, we detected GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) in important target organs in humans and monkeys. In the pancreas, GLP-1R was predominantly localized in β-cells with a markedly weaker expression in acinar cells. Pancreatic ductal epithelial cells did not express GLP-1R. In the kidney and lung, GLP-1R was exclusively expressed in smooth muscle cells in the walls of arteries and arterioles. In the heart, GLP-1R was localized in myocytes of the sinoatrial node. In the gastrointestinal tract, the highest GLP-1R expression was seen in the Brunner's gland in the duodenum, with lower level expression in parietal cells and smooth muscle cells in the muscularis externa in the stomach and in myenteric plexus neurons throughout the gut. No GLP-1R was seen in primate liver and thyroid. GLP-1R expression seen with immunohistochemistry was confirmed by functional expression using in situ ligand binding with (125)I-GLP-1. In conclusion, these results give important new insight into the molecular mode of action of GLP-1 analogs by identifying the exact cellular localization of GLP-1R.

The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) belongs to family B of the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), and has become a promising target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Here we describe the development and characterization of a fully functional cysteine-deprived and C-terminally truncated GLP-1R. Single cysteines were initially substituted with alanine, and functionally redundant cysteines were subsequently changed simultaneously. Our results indicate that Cys(174), Cys(226), Cys(296) and Cys(403) are important for the GLP-1-mediated response, whereas Cys(236), Cys(329), Cys(341), Cys(347), Cys(438), Cys(458) and Cys(462) are not. Extensive deletions were made in the C-terminal tail of GLP-1R in order to determine the limit for truncation. As for other family B GPCRs, we observed a direct correlation between the length of the C-terminal tail and specific binding of (125)I-GLP-1, indicating that the membrane proximal part of the C-terminal is involved in receptor expression at the cell surface. The results show that seven cysteines and more than half of the C-terminal tail can be removed from GLP-1R without compromising GLP-1 binding or function., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Animal models are important tools in the development of new drug candidates against the inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. In order to increase the translational value of these models, it is important to increase knowledge relating to standard drugs. Using the SCID adoptive transfer colitis model, we have evaluated the effect of currently used IBD drugs and IBD drug candidates, that is, anti-TNF-α, TNFR-Fc, anti-IL-12p40, anti-IL-6, CTLA4-Ig, anti-α4β7 integrin, enrofloxacin/metronidazole, and cyclosporine. We found that anti-TNF-α, antibiotics, anti-IL-12p40, anti-α4β7 integrin, CTLA4-Ig, and anti-IL-6 effectively prevented onset of colitis, whereas TNFR-Fc and cyclosporine did not. In intervention studies, antibiotics, anti-IL-12p40, and CTLA4-Ig induced remission, whereas the other compounds did not. The data suggest that the adoptive transfer model and the inflammatory bowel diseases have some main inflammatory pathways in common. The finding that some well-established IBD therapeutics do not have any effect in the model highlights important differences between the experimental model and the human disease.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) activates the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R), which belongs to family B of the G-protein-coupled receptors. We previously identified a selective small molecule ligand, compound 2, that acted as a full agonist and allosteric modulator of GLP-1R. In this study, the structurally related small molecule, compound 3, stimulated cAMP production from GLP-1R, but not from the homologous glucagon receptor (GluR). The receptor selectivity encouraged a chimeric receptor approach to identify domains important for compound 3-mediated activation of GLP-1R. A subsegment of the GLP-1R transmembrane domain containing TM2 to TM5 was sufficient to transfer compound 3 responsiveness to GluR. Therefore, divergent residues in this subsegment of GLP-1R and GluR are responsible for the receptor selectivity of compound 3. Functional analyses of other chimeric receptors suggested that the existence of a helix-helix interface between TM1 and TM7 is important for the compound 3 response. Furthermore, site-directed mutagenesis revealed that a Phe195-Leu substitution in TM2 and a Thr391-Ala substitution in TM7 increased and decreased the efficacy of compound 3 without disturbing the potency or efficacy of GLP-1. Collectively, differential effects of receptor mutations suggest that TM2 and/or TM7 are important for compound 3-mediated activation of GLP-1R., (Copyright © 2011 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Activation of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) upon ligand binding leads to the release of insulin from pancreatic cells. This strictly glucose-dependent process renders the receptor and its ligands useful in the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus. To enable a biophysical characterization in vitro, we expressed the human full-length GLP-1R in the cytosol of Escherichia coli as inclusion bodies. After purification, refolding of the SDS-solubilized receptor was achieved by the exchange of SDS against the detergent Brij78 using an artificial chaperone system. Far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopic studies revealed that the receptor adopts a characteristic alpha-helical structure in Brij78 micelles. Ligand binding of the renatured protein was quantified by fluorescence quenching and surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. In the presence of Brij micelles, the refolded receptor binds the agonist exendin-4 with an apparent dissociation constant of approximately 100 nM in a reversible one-step mechanism. To demonstrate that the detected ligand binding activity is not only due to an autonomously functional N-terminal domain (nGLP-1R) but also due to additional contacts with the juxtamembrane part, we separately expressed and refolded the extracellular domain relying on identical protocols established for the full-length GLP-1R. In support of the suggested multidomain binding mode, the nGLP-1R binds exendin-4 with a lower affinity (K(app) in the micromolar range) and a different kinetic mechanism. The lower ligand affinity of the nGLP-1R results entirely from a decreased kinetic stability of the receptor-ligand complex, dissociation of which is approximately 40-fold faster in the case of the nGLP-1R compared to the full-length GLP-1R. In summary, a framework was developed to produce functional human full-length GLP-1R by recombinant expression in E. coli as a prerequisite for eventual structure determination and a rigorous biophysical characterization including protein variants.

GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) is an incretin released from intestinal L-cells in response to food intake. Activation of the GLP-1 receptor potentiates the synthesis and release of insulin from pancreatic beta-cells in a glucose-dependent manner. The GLP-1 receptor belongs to class B of the G-protein-coupled receptors, a subfamily characterized by a large N-terminal extracellular ligand binding domain. Exendin-4 and GLP-1 are 50% identical, and exendin-4 is a full agonist with similar affinity and potency for the GLP-1 receptor. We recently solved the crystal structure of the GLP-1 receptor extracellular domain in complex with the competitive antagonist exendin-4(9-39). Interestingly, the isolated extracellular domain binds exendin-4 with much higher affinity than the endogenous agonist GLP-1. Here, we have solved the crystal structure of the extracellular domain in complex with GLP-1 to 2.1 Aresolution. The structure shows that important hydrophobic ligand-receptor interactions are conserved in agonist- and antagonist-bound forms of the extracellular domain, but certain residues in the ligand-binding site adopt a GLP-1-specific conformation. GLP-1 is a kinked but continuous alpha-helix from Thr(13) to Val(33) when bound to the extracellular domain. We supplemented the crystal structure with site-directed mutagenesis to link the structural information of the isolated extracellular domain with the binding properties of the full-length receptor. The data support the existence of differences in the binding modes of GLP-1 and exendin-4 on the full-length GLP-1 receptor.

The glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) receptor and the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor are homologous G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Incretin receptor agonists stimulate the synthesis and secretion of insulin from pancreatic β-cells and are therefore promising agents for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. It is well established that the N-terminal extracellular domain (ECD) of incretin receptors is important for ligand binding and ligand specificity, whereas the transmembrane domain is involved in receptor activation. Structures of the ligand-bound ECD of incretin receptors have been solved recently by X-ray crystallography. The crystal structures reveal a similar fold of the ECD and a similar mechanism of ligand binding, where the ligand adopts an α-helical conformation. Residues in the C-terminal part of the ligand interact directly with the ECD and hydrophobic interactions appear to be the main driving force for ligand binding to the ECD of incretin receptors. Obviously, the-still missing-structures of full-length incretin receptors are required to construct a complete picture of receptor function at the molecular level. However, the progress made recently in structural analysis of the ECDs of incretin receptors and related GPCRs has shed new light on the process of ligand recognition and binding and provided a basis to disclose some of the mechanisms underlying receptor activation at high resolution., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest constellation of validated drug targets. Crystal structures of class A GPCRs have facilitated major advances in understanding the principles underlying GPCR activation. By contrast, relatively little is known about class B GPCRs, a family of receptors for a variety of therapeutically relevant peptide hormones. Encouraging progress has recently been made through the structural elucidation of several extracellular hormone-binding domains of class B GPCRs in complex with their natural ligands or synthetic analogues. The structures reveal similar modes of ligand binding, with concomitant alpha-helical structuring of the ligand. The latter suggests an attractive mechanical model for class B GPCR activation.