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The study aimed at detecting the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) RNA in Stomoxys niger niger and cattle. Flies were collected using a Vavoua trap pitched 50m from the center of the herd and by net-catches on clinically sick (n=5) and symptomless cattle (n=5). Vesicular Epithelia Tissues (VETs) from sick cattle were analyzed by real time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rt RT PCR) and serum from randomly selected animals without clinical signs was examined by serological test (NSP-ELISA Kit) for the presence of FMDV antibodies. Of a total of 568 Stomoxys trapped using the Vavoua trap, two species were identified namely 196 S. niger niger (34.51 %, 9. 33 Snn/t/d), 101 S. omega (17.78%, 4.80 so/t/d) and 271 non-biting Musca sp. (47.71%, 12.90 m/vavoua and day). The dissected mouth and legs of each fly caught were screened for FMDV using the rt RT PCR. FMDV RNA was found in the epithelial vesicles of all clinically sick animals (n=5, with mean Ct of 27.98456) and 3 out of 5 were serologically positive in the clinically in-apparent cattle group. The overall S. n. niger (most abundant species) contamination rate with the FMDV irrespective of collection method was 40.3 % with females (49.0 %) being slightly more contaminated than males (21.7%) (OR =0.45, P= 0.1506) and legs being more often positive than mouth-parts (P=0.02002). Flies were contaminated less frequently on animals without clinical signs than those on animals with clinical signs, but this difference was not significant (P=0.69680).

OBJECTIVE To determine the extent of environmental exposure to heteroxenous coccidia from wild canid feces in southeastern Ohio. SAMPLE 285 presumed wild canid fecal samples collected across an ecological system in southeastern Ohio. PROCEDURES Morphological classification and molecular analysis were used to determine the canid genus for collected fecal samples. Microscopic and molecular analysis were used to detect coccidian oocysts and DNA. Several variables were analyzed for associations with coccidian DNA detection or prevalence. RESULTS Coccidian DNA was detected in 51 of 285 (17.9%) fecal samples. Of those positive samples, 1% (95% confidence interval, 0.4% to 3%) had positive results for Hammondia heydorni and none had positive results for Neospora caninum, for an estimated environmental N caninum prevalence of 0% (95% confidence interval, 0% to 7%)/1-km2 hexagonal area evaluated. Morphological classification revealed that 78.9% (225/285) of fecal samples were from coyotes and 17.2% (49/285) were from foxes. No difference in proportions of coccidian DNA-positive fecal samples was identified among canid species. Environmental temperature and fecal freshness were associated with coccidian DNA detection. Land use type, relative canid density, and cattle density were not associated with the prevalence of coccidian DNA-positive samples. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The low prevalence of coccidia shed in wild canid feces in this study, including the estimated 0% environmental prevalence of N caninum, suggested that the role of the oocyst environmental phase in coccidia transmission to ruminants is likely minor in rural southeastern Ohio.

This article used ethnographic methods to examine how Ohio hunters’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices affect risk exposure to infectious disease. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with hunters from Southeast Ohio, and an online survey was distributed to a random sample of licensed Ohio hunters. Data analyses indicated that Ohio hunters learn about wildlife disease through word-of-mouth, hunting publications, and online sources. They perceived low-to-no risk of exposure to infectious diseases. Although hunters were generally knowledgeable about infectious wildlife diseases, they were more concerned about the impact on wildlife populations than their own health. The results contribute to a better understanding of the role of hunter behavior in response to disease events, the identification of future interventions that would most effectively inform hunters about wildlife diseases, and how to minimize their risk of exposure.

Background The contamination of food by chemical hazards is a worldwide public health concern and is a leading cause of trade problems internationally. Based on former work describing the prevalent use and misuse of antibiotics in cattle in the Far North Region of Cameroon, we designed a study to detect antibiotic (penicillin G and oxytetracycline) in beef sold for human consumption in Maroua (Cameroon). To determine the mean concentration of antibiotic residues in beef, sample of liver and muscle were collected from 202 cattle selected randomly in all the slaughterhouses of Maroua and Godola and analyzed using Liquid Chromatographic tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Characteristics of the cattle selected (age, sex, breed, body condition score, weight, production system, and pathology, etc.) were also collected before and/or after slaughter – by physical examination and survey, and post mortem examination. Results Results revealed that out of 202 cattle 41 (20.30%) tested positive for antibiotics in one or more of their organs. The meat of cattle from transhumance system, sick animals and older cattle was more likely to be contained with penicillin G and oxytetracycline residues. The average residues concentration in beef was 17.58 μg/kg for penicillin G and 240 μg/kg for oxytetracycline. Conclusions The findings of the present study should be alarming for the legislative authorities in food security and safety. This highlights a very serious problem, both for the consumers of Maroua city and the herders of the region as well as for the whole economy of Cameroon. It is therefore be important that measures be taken at several levels by the actors of the sector (public authorities, veterinary auxiliaries, etc.) to guarantee the safety of the food of animal origin.

Pastoralists who depend on their herds for their livelihoods need a minimum number of animals to support their household. Due to the dynamics of herd growth, pastoralists may find themselves at times below that minimum number. Previous studies have shown that there is a herd-size threshold below which households are unlikely to escape poverty. We explore the concept of a herd-size threshold using an agent-based model to examine the role of scale and stochasticity in family herd dynamics. The model was parametrized with data from the literature. The results from the computer simulations show (1) that offtake rates significantly limit herd growth; and (2) that herd-size threshold is better understood as a range of probabilities. We discuss the methodological and conceptual advantages of using agent-based modeling to examine demographic dynamics, including the possibility of conducting multiple experiments in silico to examine the dynamics of herd growth.

OBJECTIVES The gut microbiota varies across human populations. The first years of life are a critical period in its development. While delivery mode and diet contribute to observed variation, the additional contribution of specific environmental factors remains poorly understood. One factor is waterborne enteric pathogen exposure. In this pilot study, we explore the relationship between household water security and the gut microbiota of children. METHODS From Nicaraguan households (n = 39), we collected drinking water samples, as well as fecal samples from children aged one month to 5.99 years (n = 53). We tested water samples for total coliforms (CFU/mL) and the presence of common enteric pathogens. Composition and diversity of the gut microbiota were characterized by 16S rRNA sequencing. Households were classified as having drinking water that was "low" (

To address the challenge of multiscale dynamics of infectious diseases, the Mathematical Biosciences Institute organized a workshop at The Ohio State University to bring together scientists from a variety of disciplines to share expertise gained through looking at infectious diseases across different scales. The researchers at the workshop, held in April 2018, were specifically looking at three model systems: foot-and-mouth disease, vector-borne diseases and enteric diseases. Although every multiscale model must be necessarily derived from a multiscale system, not every multiscale system has to lead to multiscale models. These three model systems seem to have produced a variety of both multiscale and integrated single-scale mechanistic models that have developed their own strengths and particular challenges. Here, we present papers from some of the workshop participants to show the breadth of the field.

In Cameroon, a leading livestock production country, previous study highlighted the extensive misuse of veterinary drugs in the Far North Region, where we found the second cattle population of the country. Based on former work describing the presence of penicillin G (PEN) and oxytetracycline (OTC) residues in beef sold for human consumption in Maroua, the capital city of the Far North Region, this study was designed to determine the risk of PEN and OTC residue intake via beef consumption by the population of Maroua and to evaluate the consumer's knowledge on drug residues. Dietary exposure determined here was based on the average consumption of beef (found during a survey of 202 households randomly selected in Maroua) and the average concentration of the two antibiotic residues in beef (obtained after liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis of samples of liver and muscle collected from 202 cattle selected randomly in all the slaughterhouses of Maroua) found in our previous studies. The estimated daily intakes per capita of OTC and PEN residues from beef consumption were 22.81 and 2.37 μg, respectively. The risk was then assessed as high [9.6%; range from 6.4 to 15.4% of acceptable daily intake (ADI)] and considerable (2.2% range from 1.5 to 3.5% of ADI) for PEN and OTC residues, respectively. Based on the mean value, it can be concluded that the estimated risk of antibiotic daily intake through beef in Maroua is high (5.9% of ADI). Also, 98% of the surveyed population is not aware that meat can be contaminated by residues of veterinary drugs administered to slaughter animals. This ignorance would also increase the risk of contamination of the population of Maroua with antibiotic residues. This work clearly highlights the high risk of consuming beef by the population of Maroua. Taking into consideration the evidence of the intake of antibiotic residues from others sources, it is therefore very imperative that measures be taken by the government to ensure food safety in order to guarantee the health of the populations of this region in particular and Cameroon in general, hence the need for the establishment of a national food safety plan.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) affects cloven-hoofed livestock and agricultural economies worldwide. Analyses of the 2001 FMD outbreak in the United Kingdom informed how livestock movement contributed to disease spread. However, livestock reared in other locations use different production systems that might also influence disease dynamics. Here, we investigate a livestock production system known as transhumance, which is the practice of moving livestock between seasonal grazing areas. We built mechanistic models using livestock movement data from the Far North Region of Cameroon. We represented these data as a dynamic network over which we simulated disease transmission and examined three questions. First, we asked what were characteristics of simulated FMDV transmission across a transhumant pastoralist system. Second, we asked how simulated FMDV transmission across a transhumant pastoralist system differed from transmission across this same population held artificially stationary, thereby revealing the effect of movement on disease dynamics. Third, we asked if disease simulations on well-studied theoretical networks are similar to disease simulations on this empirical dynamic network. The results show that the empirical dynamic network was sparsely connected except for an eight-week period in September and October when pastoralists move from rainy season to dry season grazing areas. The mean epidemic size across all 3,744 simulations was 99.9% and the mean epidemic duration was 1.45 years. Disease simulations across the static network showed a smaller mean epidemic size (27.6%) and a similar epidemic duration (1.5 years). Epidemics simulated on theoretical networks showed similar final epidemic sizes (100%) and different mean durations. Our simulations indicate that transhumant livestock systems have the potential to host FMDV outbreaks that affect almost all livestock and last longer than a year. Furthermore, our comparison of empirical and theoretical networks underscores the importance of using empirical data to understand the role of mobility in the transmission of infectious diseases. Keywords: Mobile pastoralism, Transhumance, Livestock movements, Dynamic networks, Foot-and-mouth disease virus

The consequences of foot-and-mouth disease impact regional economies and food security through animal mortality and morbidity, trade restrictions and burdens to veterinary infrastructure. Despite efforts to control the disease, some regions, mostly in warmer climates, persistently report disease outbreaks. Consequently, it is necessary to understand how environmental factors influence transmission, of this economically devastating disease. Extensive research covers basic aetiology and transmission potential of livestock and livestock products for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), with a subset evaluating environmental survival. However, this subset, completed in the early to mid-20th century in Northern Europe and the United States, is not easily generalized to today's endemic locations. This review uncovered 20 studies, to assess current knowledge and analyse the effects of environmental variables on FMDV survival, using a Cox proportional hazards (Coxph) model. However, the dataset is limited, for example pH was included in three studies and only five studies reported both relative humidity (RH) and temperature. After dropping pH from the analysis, our results suggest that temperature alone does not describe FMDV survival; instead, interactions between RH and temperature have broader impacts across various conditions. For instance, FMDV is expected to survive longer during the wet season (survival at day 50 is ~90% at 16°C and 86% RH) versus the dry season (survival at day 50 approaches 0% at 16°C and 37.5% RH) or comparatively in the UK versus the Southwestern United States. Additionally, survival on vegetation topped 70% on day 75 when conditions exceeded 20°C with high RH (86%), drastically higher than the survival on inanimate surfaces at the same temperature and RH (~0%). This is important in tropical regions, where high temperatures can persist throughout the year, but RH varies. Therefore, parameter estimates, for disease modelling and control in endemic areas, require environmental survival data from a wider range of conditions.

The objective of this study was to determine beef consumption and evaluate the knowledge of consumers on meat quality in Maroua city in the Far North Region of Cameroon. To achieve this, 202 households selected using a gripped map and random selection method were surveyed. The cookers or cooks were surveyed and observed in each household. During this survey, the pieces of beef, as cuts before cooking, were weighted and the quantity of beef consumed per person was calculated. The influence of socio economic and demographic factors related to consumer (religion, age, monthly income, number of person in the household and district) on beef consumption was also evaluated. Overall, 96% of the surveyed households consumed meat and among them, 98% eat beef. Beef is consumed the most (72%), followed by goat (21%), sheep (5%), chicken (1%) and pork (1%). In majority of the beef-eating households (39%), cattle meat was eaten two or three times per week. In addition, a person consumed 133.25 ± 33.49 g of beef per day and this consumption rate was affected by the age, monthly income and the district position. During the evaluation of consumer’s knowledge on meat quality, color and tenderness were found to be the most important factors for consumers. These findings suggest that meat consumption in the livestock production area in Cameroon is very important as it is higher than that observed in the whole Cameroon and in Africa. Thus Cameroonian government should focus on improving meat consumption in consumption zones. Key words: Beef, consumer, consumption, household, meat.

Prevalence of disease in wildlife populations, which is necessary for developing disease models and conducting epidemiologic analyses, is often understudied. Laboratory tests used to screen for diseases in wildlife populations often are validated only for domestic animals. Consequently, the use of these tests for wildlife populations may lead to inaccurate estimates of disease prevalence. We demonstrate the use of Bayesian latent class analysis (LCA) in determining the specificity and sensitivity of a competitive enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA; VMRD ®, Inc.) serologic test used to identify exposure to Neospora caninum (hereafter N. caninum) in three wildlife populations in southeastern Ohio, USA. True prevalence of N. caninum exposure in these populations was estimated to range from 0.1% to 3.1% in American bison (Bison bison), 51.0% to 53.8% in Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus), and 40.0% to 45.9% in white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). The accuracy of the cELISA in American bison and Père David's deer was estimated to be close to the 96% sensitivity and 99% specificity reported by the manufacturer. Sensitivity in white‐tailed deer, however, ranged from 78.9% to 99.9%. Apparent prevalence of N. caninum from the test results is not equal to the true prevalence in white‐tailed deer and Père David's deer populations. Even when these species inhabit the same community, the true prevalence in the two deer populations differed from the true prevalence in the American bison population. Variances in prevalence for some species suggest differences in the epidemiology of N. caninum for these colocated populations. Bayesian LCA methods could be used as in this example to overcome some of the constraints on validating tests in wildlife species. The ability to accurately evaluate disease status and prevalence in a population improves our understanding of the epidemiology of multihost pathogen systems at the community level.

Background Canine rabies is endemic in Ethiopia and presents a significant burden for both animal and human health. We investigate barriers to dog vaccination in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. These results can be utilized to improve and target future rabies control efforts. Methodology/Principle findings During May of 2017, dog owners were surveyed during a free canine rabies vaccination programs that utilized both door-to-door (DtD) and central point (CP) vaccination methods. Surveys collected information on preferences for rabies vaccine delivery and were administered in Amharic. A total of 1057 surveys were completed. Of those surveyed, 62.4 % indicated that their dogs had been vaccinated against rabies within the last year. Commonly reported barriers to vaccination were a lack of awareness that dogs required rabies vaccines (18.1 %) and lack of knowledge about where to find vaccine (15.0 %). The median price owners were willing to pay for vaccination was 25 birr ($0.91 USD) and the median distance willing to travel was 1.0 km; however, 48.9 % of those surveyed during DtD were unwilling to travel at all. We identified 3 classes of respondents who were grouped due to their responses by latent class analysis: ‘the Unaware’, ‘the Vaccinators’, and ‘the Multiple Barriers’. Conclusions/Significance Although many respondents were willing to pay for rabies vaccine (94.0 %); the preferred cost (median) was less than the actual cost of providing the vaccine. This supports the need for reduced-cost or free vaccine to achieve and sustain the 70 % vaccine coverage target threshold for canine rabies elimination. Additionally, a significant portion (41.5 %) of those surveyed indicated that they were unwilling to travel in order to have their dog vaccinated. The latent class analysis provides useful guidance on how to reach target vaccination. Owners from ‘the Unaware’ group made up 18.1 % of respondents and their high rate of allowing their dogs to roam identifies them as a prime target for canine health and behavior education. ‘The Multiple Barriers’ owners reported lower degrees of dog roaming and were substantially more likely to be found by DtD campaigns, possibly because they have limited ability/interest in handling their dogs. These results demonstrate the importance of incorporating DtD vaccination as well as subsidies to maximize vaccine coverage in Addis Ababa.

Transboundary movement of animals is an important mechanism for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) spread in endemic regions, such as Cameroon. Several transboundary animal trade routes cross the Far North Region of Cameroon, and cattle moved on foot along these routes often come in contact with native (sedentary and transhumant) herds. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of transboundary trade cattle in the epidemiology of FMDV in the Far North Region of Cameroon. A total of 582 oropharyngeal fluid (OPF) samples were collected from asymptomatic transboundary trade cattle at official border check points and 57 vesicle epithelial tissues were collected from clinically affected native cattle in the Far North Region of Cameroon during 2010-2014. Viral protein 1 (VP1) coding sequences were obtained from 6 OPF samples from transboundary cattle (4 serotype O, 2 serotype SAT2) and 19 epithelial tissue samples from native cattle (7 serotype O, 3 serotype SAT2, 9 serotype A). FMDV serotype O viruses belonged to two topotypes (East Africa-3 and West Africa), and phylogenetic analyses suggested a pattern of continuous transmission in the region. Serotype SAT2 viruses belonged to a single topotype (VII), and phylogenetic analysis suggested a pattern of repeated introductions of different SAT2 lineages in the region. Serotype A viruses belonged to topotype AFRICA/G-IV, and the pattern of transmission was unclear. Spearman rank correlation analysis of VP1 coding sequences obtained in this study from transboundary and native cattle showed a positive correlation between genetic distance and time for serotype O (ρ = 0.71, p = 0.003) and between genetic distance and geographic distance for serotype SAT2 (ρ = 0.54, p = 0.1). These data suggest that transboundary trade cattle participate in the transmission of FMDV in the Far North Region of Cameroon, however the dynamics and direction of transmission could not be determined in this study. Results of this study contribute to the understanding of transboundary FMDV epidemiology in Central Africa and will help to inform control programs in Cameroon and in the region.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate 2 methods of surveying free-roaming cats (Felis catus) and identify factors potentially associated with the presence of such cats in a mixed-urban environment. ANIMALS Free-roaming cats on and near The Ohio State University campus. PROCEDURES The university campus and surrounding areas were divided into zones classified by land-use category; 100 zones were selected for surveillance of free-roaming cats by the line-transect method (with visual observation). Twenty-three of the 100 zones were selected for surveillance by the trail-camera method (motion-triggered still photography). Food resources in the study site were mapped, and the presence of other animal species was recorded with trail cameras. Potential associations between the number of cat sightings and variables of interest were assessed by statistical methods, RESULTS There were 6 cat sightings in 5 zones and 92 cat sightings in 9 zones with the line-transect and trail-camera methods, respectively. Cats were most frequently detected off campus and in urban land-use zones. The number of cat sightings with trail cameras was significantly correlated with the density of food resources but not wildlife sightings in the area and was significantly greater at night than during the day. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The number of sightings with the trail-camera method was substantially higher than that obtained with the line-transect method; however, identification of individual cats was generally not possible, and population size could not be estimated with these methods. Communities considering population control for free-roaming cats should consider the use of trail cameras to identify areas with high free-roaming cat activity and observation at night to gather baseline data. Easily accessible food waste may attract free-roaming cats.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most contagious and economically important livestock diseases worldwide. Four serotypes of FMD virus (FMDV; O, A, SAT1, SAT2) circulate in Cameroon, and a trivalent inactivated vaccine against the three most common serotypes (O, A, SAT2) was recently introduced in 2014. The objective of this study was to characterize vaccine performance in cattle under natural hyperendemic conditions in the Adamawa region of Cameroon. Vaccinated cattle (n = 50) and non-vaccinated controls (n = 100) were monitored by serum and oropharyngeal fluid (OPF) sample collection through a 12-month period. Anti-FMDV non-structural protein (anti-NSP) seroprevalence increased from 59.3% (89/150) at the beginning of the study to 85.8% (103/120) at the end of the study, and FMDV RNA was found in 28% (42/150) of animals overall, despite detection of clinical signs of FMD in only 6 non-vaccinated animals. Viral sequence analysis indicated that subclinical infections of FMDV serotypes O and A were present within the study herds during the study period, which was reflected by an overall increase of anti-NSP seroprevalence during the study. There was no association between vaccination status and seroconversion or prevalence of FMDV RNA in OPF. Younger cattle had higher odds of detection of FMDV RNA in OPF, but older animals were more likely to be seropositive. This study suggests vaccination of herds previously exposed to FMDV may help to limit clinical signs and reduce economic losses caused by FMDV. These findings also suggest that subclinical circulation of FMDV occurs in hyperendemic regions regardless of vaccination.

OBJECTIVE To assess the discriminatory value for corticosteroid-induced alkaline phosphatase (CiALP) activity and other variables that can be measured routinely on a CBC and biochemical analysis for the diagnosis of hypoadrenocorticism in dogs. SAMPLE Medical records of 57 dogs with confirmed hypoadrenocorticism and 57 control dogs in which hypoadrenocorticism was suspected but ruled out. PROCEDURES A retrospective case-control study was conducted. Dogs were included if a CBC and complete biochemical analysis had been performed. Dogs with iatrogenic hypoadrenocorticism and dogs treated previously with glucocorticoids were excluded. Cortisol concentration for dogs with hypoadrenocorticism was ≤ 2 μg/dL both before and after ACTH administration. Cortisol concentration for control dogs was > 4 μg/dL before or after ACTH administration. RESULTS Area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for CiALP activity was low (0.646; 95% confidence interval, 0.494 to 0.798). Area under the ROC curve for a model that combined the CiALP activity, Na-to-K ratio, eosinophil count, activity of creatine kinase, and concentrations of SUN and albumin was high (0.994; 95% confidence interval, 0.982 to 1.000). Results for this model could be used to correctly classify all dogs, except for 1 dog with hypoadrenocorticism and no electrolyte abnormalities. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE CiALP activity alone cannot be used as a reliable diagnostic test for hypoadrenocorticism in dogs. Combined results for CiALP activity, Na-to-K ratio, eosinophil count, creatine kinase activity, and concentrations of SUN and albumin provided an excellent means to discriminate between hypoadrenocorticism and diseases that mimic hypoadrenocorticism.

The Far North region in Cameroon has been more heavily impacted by cholera than any other region over the past decade, but very little has been done to study the drivers of waterborne diseases in the region. We investigated the relationship between water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) parameters, microbial and antibiotic resistance (AR) contamination levels in drinking water, and health outcomes using health survey and molecular analysis during June and July of 2014 in two settlement types (agro-pastoralist villages and transhumant pastoralist camps). Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to determine fecal contamination sources, enteric pathogens, and antibiotic resistance genes. Ruminant-associated fecal contamination was widespread in both settlement types (81.2%), with human-associated contamination detected in 21.7% of the samples. Salmonella spp. (59.4%) and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (stx1 44.9% and stx2 31.9%) were detected across all samples. Tetracycline resistance was found only in village samples. A significant difference in diarrheal incidence within the past 28 days among young children was found between camps (31.3%) and villages (0.0%). Our findings suggest that water contamination may play an important role in contributing to gastrointestinal illness, supporting the need for future research and public health intervention to reduce gastrointestinal illness in the area.

Reasons for performing study: Evaluation of laminitis cases relies on radiographic measurements of the equine foot. Reference values have not been established for all layers of the foot. Objectives: To establish normal hoof wall and sole measurements using digital radiography (DR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and to document tissue components present in the dorsal hoof wall and solar layers seen on DR. Study design: Prospective observational case–control study. Methods: Digital radiography and MRI were performed on 50 cadaver front feet from 25 horses subjected to euthanasia for nonlameness-related reasons. Four observers measured hoof wall (dorsal, lateral and medial) and sole thickness (sagittal, lateral and medial) using DR and magnetic resonance images. One observer repeated the measurements 3 times. Inter- and intraobserver correlation was assessed. Results: Digital radiography and MRI measurements for the normal hoof wall and sole were established. Inter- and intraobserver pairwise Pearson's correlation for DR (r>0.98) and MRI measurements (r>0.99) was excellent. Based on MRI, the less radiopaque layer on DR is comprised of the stratum lamellatum and stratum reticulare. Conclusions: Normal DR and MRI measurements for the hoof wall and sole were established. On DR images, the less radiopaque layer of the foot observed corresponds to the critical tissues injured in laminitis, the strata lamellatum and reticulare. These reference measurements may be used by the clinician to detect soft-tissue changes in the laminitic equine foot and provide a foundation for future research determining changes in these measurements in horses with laminitis.

Poultry are recognized as a main reservoir of Campylobacter spp. However, longitudinal studies investigating the persistence of Campylobacter on commercial meat turkeys are rare. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence, antimicrobial susceptibility, and persistence of genotypically related strains of Campylobacter spp. recovered from three commercial turkey farms in Ohio belonging to a single producer. Eight hundred ten samples were collected from birds aged 1 week to slaughter, consisting of 750 fecal droppings and 60 ceca at slaughter. Overall Campylobacter prevalence was 55.9%. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmed 72.3% of all isolates as C. coli, 5.3% as C. jejuni, 10.6% as both, and 11.9% as other Campylobacter spp. PCR restriction fragment length polymorphism of the flaA gene subtyping detected 70 types—62 for C. coli and 8 for C. jejuni isolates—with most (80%) of flaA-types constituting farm homogeneous groups. Multilocus sequence typing of 99 selected Campylobacter isolates resulted in 23 sequence types (STs), consisting of 8 STs for C. jejuni and 15 STs for C. coli isolates. Six novel STs—four for C. jejuni and two—for C. coli, were detected. In a subset of isolates (n=98) tested for antimicrobial resistance, the most common resistance was to tetracycline (95%), followed by azithromycin (43%), while 42% and 18% of the isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin and erythromycin, respectively. All isolates were susceptible to florfenicol. C. coli isolates displayed a higher proportion of resistance than C. jejuni to most antimicrobials. This study highlights the high prevalence, genotypic diversity, and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter spp. in commercial turkey from farm to slaughter.

Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) is an RNA virus that infects cloven-hoofed animals, often produces either epidemic or endemic conditions, and negatively affects agricultural economies worldwide. FMDV epidemic dynamics have been extensively studied, but understanding of drivers of disease persistence in areas in which FMDV is endemic, such as most of sub-Saharan Africa, is lacking. We present a spatial stochastic model of disease dynamics that incorporates a spatial transmission kernel in a modified Gillespie algorithm, and use it to evaluate two hypothesized drivers of endemicity: asymptomatic carriers and the movement of mobile herds. The model is parameterized using data from the pastoral systems in the Far North Region of Cameroon. Our computational study provides evidence in support of the hypothesis that asymptomatic carriers, but not mobile herds, are a driver of endemicity.

This study aimed to identify DNA attributed to Hammondia heydorni oocysts in the feces of wild canids in and around an Ohio wildlife conservation center. Two hundred and eighty-five wild canid fecal samples were analyzed using PCR with melting curve analysis to detect coccidian DNA. Coccidia-positive samples were further subjected to H. heydorni-specific and N. caninum-specific PCR assays. Samples positive by the H. heydorni-specific assay were additionally analyzed with a PCR assay to distinguish H. heydorni from Hammondia triffittae. Coccidian DNA was detected in 51 of the 285 (17.9%) wildlife samples. H. heydorni DNA was detected in three of the coccidia-positive wildlife samples (1.1%) and N. caninum was detected in none. Determining the presence of H. heydorni in wild canids will contribute to a greater understanding of the role these hosts play in the ecology of this parasite.

This study examined the spatial variation of potential gastrointestinal pathogens within drinking water sources and home storage containers in four neighborhoods in Maroua, Cameroon. Samples were collected from source (n= 28) and home containers (n= 60) in each study neighborhood. Pathogen contamination was assessed using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, targeting Campylobacter spp., Shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli (virulence genes, stx1 and stx2), and Salmonella spp. Microbial source tracking (MST) targeted three different host-specific markers: HF183 (human), Rum2Bac (ruminant) and GFD (poultry) to identify contamination sources. Staphylococcus aureus and the tetracycline-resistance gene (tetQ) were assessed to measure human hand contact and presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Pathogen/MST levels were compared statistically and spatially, and neighborhood variation was compared with previously collected demographic information. All the test fecal markers and pathogens (except Arcobacter) were detected in home and source samples. Two neighborhoods tested positive for most pathogens/MST while the others only tested positive for one or two. Spatial variation of pathogens/MST existed between sources, storage containers, and neighborhoods. Differing population density and ethno-economic characteristics could potentially explain variation. Future research should explore the influence of demographic and ethno-economic factors on water quality during microbial risk assessments in urban Africa.

When data representing a preferred measurement of risk cannot be obtained, as is often the case for global animal diseases, decisions that affect millions of people and their animals are typically made based on expert opinion. Expert opinion can be and has been used to address the critical lack of data existing for prevalence and incidence of many global diseases, including foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). However, when a conclusion based on expert opinion applies to a topic as sensitive as FMD, which has tremendous economic, political, and social implications, care should be taken to understand the accuracy of and differences in the opinion data. The differences in experts' opinions and the relative accuracy of an expert opinion elicitation for "diagnosing" country-level FMD presence were examined for the years 1997-2003 using Bayesian methods. A formal survey of eight international FMD experts revealed that individual experts had different opinions as to the probability of finding FMD in a country. However, a weighted average of the experts' responses was relatively accurate (91% sensitivity and 85% specificity) at identifying the FMD status of a country, compared to using a method that employed information available from World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). The most apparent disagreements between individual experts and available information were found for Indonesia, South Korea, and South America, and, in general, the experts seemed to believe that countries in South Asia were more likely to be positive than other countries that reported FMD cases to OIE. This study highlights new methodology that offers a standardized, quantitative, and systematic means by which expert opinion can be used and assessed.

Summary Genetic data from field isolates of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) have been used to trace the source of recent outbreaks of FMD, to design better vaccines and diagnostic tests for FMDV, and to make conclusions regarding the general variability in the FMDV genome. Though epidemiologic data associated with FMDV isolates are available, these data have been used rarely to explore possible associations of epidemiologic factors with evolution or variation of the FMDV genome. In this study, factors associated with variation in the primary immunogenic peptide gene of FMDV (VP1), for a sample of 147 serotype O, Pan Asia strain sequences were explored using traditional analytical epidemiologic methods: logistic regression and multinomial-response logistic regression. Hypothesized factors included host type (bovine, ovine, buffalo, or porcine) and geographical region (Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe). Results of two regression analyses suggest that host type and region, considered to be possible surrogates for host management, may be associated with selection in the VP1 amino acid sequence in FMDV. For example, isolates from cattle and sheep in South Asia appear to converge with a proposed ancestor sequence, whereas isolates from the same species in the Middle East and Southeast Asia appear to diverge. The methods demonstrated here could be used on a more detailed dataset to explore the selective pressure of host immunity on the evolution of FMDV antigens in an endemic setting. More broadly, epidemiologic methods could be applied extensively to molecular data to explore the causes of genomic variation in disease-causing organisms.

Summary Using Bayesian model averaging, we quantify associations of governance and economic health with country level presence of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and estimate the probability of the presence of FMD in each country from 1997 to 2005. The Bayesian model averaging accounted for countries’ previous FMD status and other possible confounders, as well as uncertainty about the ‘true’ model, and provided accurate predictions (90% specificity and 80% sensitivity). This model represents a novel approach to predicting FMD, and other conditions, on a global scale and in identifying important risk factors that can be applied to global policy and allocation of resources for disease control.

Objective—To evaluate a bench-top coagulation analyzer for determination of prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), and fibrinogen concentration in healthy dogs. Animals—55 healthy adult dogs. Procedures—PT, APTT, and fibrinogen concentration were determined by use of the coagulation analyzer. Values were compared with results obtained independently by a conventional laboratory. Results—Correlations (with 95% confidence intervals) between the coagulation analyzer and conventional laboratory values were 0.760 (0.610 to 0.857), 0.700 (0.448 to 0.721), and 0.896 (0.878 to 0.918) for PT, APTT, and fibrinogen concentration, respectively. Using linear regression, comparison of data from the coagulation analyzer and the conventional laboratory provided equations relating the coagulation analyzer values with values from the conventional laboratory and suggested that APTT and fibrinogen values from the coagulation analyzer and conventional laboratory were approximately the same within expected random variation. Prothrombin time values for the coagulation analyzer were significantly offset from the PT values for the conventional laboratory but still were correlated reasonably well with the conventional laboratory values. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—By use of the mechanical method of analysis, fibrinogen concentrations obtained with a bench-top coagulation analyzer correlated well with results for a conventional laboratory, indicating that the coagulation analyzer is a reliable instrument for determination of this coagulation variable. Coagulation analyzer results for PT and APTT correlated less strongly with those for the conventional laboratory, but they would still be considered clinically reliable.

Larvae (maggots) of Cochliomyia hominivorax, the New World Screwworm fly, are voracious consumers of living flesh that have a negative economic impact by decreasing productivity, predisposing to other pathogens, and, in severe cases, causing death of domestic livestock. Screwworm caused extensive financial losses to the livestock industry in North America prior to its eradication. Sterile insect technique (SIT) was used to eradicate screwworm throughout North and Central America and continues to be the main tool to control it in eastern Panama. The goal of this study was to evaluate the temporal and spatial trends of screwworm myiasis cases reported in the Province of Darien and Comarca Embera (border with Colombia), Panama, from 2001 to 2011. We hypothesized that screwworm cases would vary seasonally and be spatially clustered near Colombia as a result of effective eradication strategies in Panama and the presence of an autochthonous population of flies in western Colombia. Temporal and spatial data were retrieved from COPEG-USDA records (Panama) and analysed by anova, Ripley's K function, discrete Poisson spatial statistic scan and Getis-Ord Gi*. No significant temporal trend was found, but cases were spatially distributed in four clusters. One cluster of cases occurred from 2001 to 2003 and was considered a focal temporal and spatial cluster. One cluster occurred in 2001 and 2007 indicating more rare outbreaks in an area with fewer cattle. The two remaining clusters contained cases from 2004 to 2011 and 2001 to 2011 suggesting regular breaks in the control barrier due to occasional failures of the SIT programme, difficulties implementing border quarantine strategies, livestock smuggling or the movement of infested wildlife.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) threatens animal health and leads to considerable economic losses worldwide. Progress towards minimizing both veterinary and financial impact of the disease will be made with targeted disease control policies. In order to move towards targeted control, specific targets and detailed control strategies must be defined. One approach for identifying targets is to use mathematical and simulation models quantified with accurate and fine-scale data to design and evaluate alternative control policies. Nevertheless, published models of FMDV vary in modeling techniques and resolution of data incorporated. In order to determine which models and data sources contain enough detail to represent realistic control policy alternatives, we performed a systematic literature review of all FMDV dynamical models that use host data, disease data, or both data types. For the purpose of evaluating modeling methodology, we classified models by control strategy represented, resolution of models and data, and location modeled. We found that modeling methodology has been well developed to the point where multiple methods are available to represent detailed and contact-specific transmission and targeted control. However, detailed host and disease data needed to quantify these models are only available from a few outbreaks. To address existing challenges in data collection, novel data sources should be considered and integrated into models of FMDV transmission and control. We suggest modeling multiple endemic areas to advance local control, global control, and better understand FMDV transmission dynamics. With incorporation of additional data, models can assist with both the design of targeted control and identification of transmission drivers across geographic boundaries.

Modeling the movements of humans and animals is critical to understanding the transmission of infectious diseases in complex social and ecological systems. In this paper, we focus on the movements of pastoralists in the Far North Region of Cameroon, who follow an annual transhumance by moving between rainy and dry season pastures. Describing, summarizing, and modeling the transhumance movements in the region are important steps for understanding the role these movements may play in the transmission of infectious diseases affecting humans and animals. We collected data on this transhumance system for four years using a combination of surveys and GPS mapping. An analysis on the spatial and temporal characteristics of pastoral mobility suggests four transhumance modes, each with its own properties. Modes M1 and M2 represent the type of transhumance movements where pastoralists settle in a campsite for a relatively long period of time (≥20 days) and then move around the area without specific directions within a seasonal grazing area. Modes M3 and M4 on the other hand are the situations when pastoralists stay in a campsite for a relatively short period of time (