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Theories of CSR value under a real-option framework suggest that the payment of dividends serves as an opportunity cost. One of the resulting predictions is that the value of CSR spending is lower for dividend paying firms. We examine this prediction empirically. While we find that CSR is positively related to firm value for both dividend payers and non-payers, CSR is roughly 50% less valuable to dividend payers than non-dividend payers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars propose that future research on real options theory should shift attention away from option buying during the first investment stage and toward option execution after investment. Researchers maintain that it would be interesting to explore the circumstances under which investors decide to withdraw their investments, thereby exercising the option to abandon their investments. The present research seeks to fill the gap in the literature and investigate the applicability of real options theory when an organization enhances sustainability policies while focusing on disciplined capital allocation through exit strategies. With case study data on Natura &Co's divestment strategy for the Body Shop in November 2023, a real options analysis revealed the method's practical advantages and disadvantages. This paper investigates real options theory in the context of the divestments of foreign affiliates, providing unique viewpoints and enhancing the theory beyond previous knowledge while also increasing our understanding of the divestiture phenomenon. This study concludes with a review of this paper's theoretical contributions to real options theory, the managerial and practical/social implications of real options applications in general, and the valuation methods of abandonment options in particular, shedding light on the potential of future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an uncertain economic environment, the ability of firms to adapt their production levels to unforeseen market demand is critical for their investment, financing and trade credit policies. This paper focuses on the impact of production flexibility on trade credit values and maturity in the presence of uncertain demand. We develop a continuous‐time real options framework where a buyer firm with capacity constraints orders input goods on credit from a supplier. The supplier optimally chooses the trade credit maturity, considering its influence on the buyer's optimal quantities and default timing. We distinguish between flexible firms, capable of suspending production during adverse conditions, and rigid firms, constrained to constant full‐scale production. Our findings reveal that production flexibility positively affects trade credit values and maturity. Flexible firms invest in larger capacity, default later and order larger quantities, resulting in higher trade credit values. Suppliers extend longer maturities to flexible firms, reflecting their higher creditworthiness and the positive effects of extended trade credit on their installed capacity. Furthermore, we explore extensions to our framework, including switching costs, entry timing, interactions between debt and trade credit and a non‐cooperative bargaining game. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the effect of stochastic feeding costs on animal-based commodities with particular focus on aquaculture. More specifically, we use soybean futures to infer on the stochastic behavior of salmon feed, which we assume to follow a Schwartz 2-factor model. We compare the decision of harvesting salmon using a decision rule assuming either deterministic or stochastic feeding costs. We identify cases, where accounting for stochastic feeding costs leads to significant improvements as well as cases where deterministic feeding costs are a good enough proxy. Nevertheless, in all of the cases, the newly derived rules show superior performance, while the additional computational costs are negligible. In conclusion, we recommend to use decision rules taking stochastic feeding costs into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper highlights the encountered problems in implementing real options under more realistic assumptions such as business cycle risk and normally distributed cash flows. The problems considered include (i) estimating empirical distribution of cash flows from real option investments; (ii) investment decisions across business cycles, and (iii) calculating the probability of investing with the above stated rich features. To this end, we estimate operating cash flows of US corporate firms using a Markov chain model under both geometric and arithmetic Brownian motions assumptions for cash flows and develop a valuation model of real option with normally distributed cash flows. Associated investment valuation models incorporating these estimates reveal that critical cash flow levels significantly differ across models and regimes.

There are several methods for evaluating the value of a project. The most commonly used method is the Discounted Cash Flows (DCF) method which is more practical in its use. However, the DCF method still has several weaknesses, including not paying attention to the flexibility of the manager's decision-making when the project is carried out. The Real Options method enhances this by offering more flexible and varied models. This study uses Benninga's version of the binomial method to evaluate the value of petroleum projects with the characteristics of existing companies in Indonesia. In this study, oil prices are assumed to move following the Geometric Brownian Motion (GBM) model which is commonly used in modeling the movement of a fluctuating price. In addition, the author also modifies the binomial model by including expansion options, divestment options and a combination of both. The results of this study show that the more options that managers can choose in decision-making, the greater the opportunity for the company to optimize profits and minimize losses.

As global climate change intensifies and environmental awareness increases, investing in renewable energy has become a primary economic and social development priority. Photovoltaic (PV) projects, as a clean and sustainable energy technology, have garnered significant attention due to their notable environmental and economic benefits. However, traditional investment evaluation methods such as net present value (NPV) analysis fail to adequately capture the flexibility and future uncertainties inherent in PV project investments. This paper presents a case study analysis proposing a delay option model that incorporates environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors, providing a more scientific and flexible investment decision framework for PV projects. The case study results indicate that considering ESG factors significantly enhances the investment value of PV projects. This model not only provides comprehensive support for PV project investment decisions but also underscores the importance of establishing stringent carbon trading markets and policy incentive mechanisms to promote the widespread adoption and sustainable development of renewable energy projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we study the optimal research and development (R &D) investment problem under the framework of real options in a regime-switching environment. We assume that the firm has an R &D project whose input process with technical uncertainty is affected by different regimes. By the method of dynamic programming, we have obtained the related Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman (HJB) equation and solved it in three different cases. Then, the optimal solution for our model is constructed and the related verification theorem is also provided. Finally, some numerical examples are given to investigate the properties of our model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Integrated Intelligent Energy is the property of Editorial Department of Integrated Intelligent Energy and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Real options appraisal in investment projects provides a robust framework for decision-making under uncertainty, especially in the context of large-scale industrial operations. This research focuses on real options appraisal for an investment project in a coal processing plant at PT XYZ's ABC mine operation. The need for this research arises due to the inherent uncertainty of fossil energy sources, regulatory changes, and technological developments that significantly impact the viability and profitability of mining projects. The main objectives of this study are to evaluate the feasibility of different investment strategies for the ABC mine operation using real options appraisal and to determine the impact of various uncertainties on project profitability. The methodology used was a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, including scenario planning, sensitivity analysis, and the use of Monte Carlo simuDEFon to model the potential outcomes and risks associated with different investment options. The expected outcomes of this research include a comprehensive valuation model that incorporates uncertainties specific to the coal industry and provides actionable insights for PT XYZ's investment decisions. The model aims to decide on expansion projects with reference to constraints optimising the timing and scale of investments in ABC mine operations, thereby improving the company's ability to navigate investment project feasibility and regulatory changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We consider an operator of machinery with deteriorating efficiency, facing the problem of optimally timing of either a minor (maintenance) investment or a major (replacement) investment under price uncertainty. If a maintenance investment is chosen, the efficiency of the machinery will deteriorate more slowly, and replacing later is still possible. The optimal decision rule is expressed in the form of thresholds for long-run prices, indicating that it may be rational to wait to see which of the large and small investment is the better choice. We relate the setting to repowering of green energy facilities, such as hydropower plants and wind farms. Our analysis provides several managerial insights. We characterize the conditions that govern whether the smaller investment should be considered at all, and we quantify the effect of having a replacement option embedded in a maintenance option. Our analysis demonstrates that the large investment may get postponed significantly in expectation, which recognizes maintenance as a temporary alternative to replacement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We formulate a trade-off model that integrates mean reversion in earnings, encompassing dynamic financing decisions that entail both the initial leverage selection and the subsequent decision related to the financing of a growth option. We identify that higher earnings mean reversion speed increases both initial and subsequent leverage ratios for growth option financing and accelerates investment, revealing the volatility-mitigating role of mean reversion speed. Furthermore, our analysis reveals a U-shaped relation between profitability and leverage, influenced by the presence of growth options. In contrast, higher long-term profitability has a positive relationship with leverage, highlighting the differential impact of long-term versus contemporaneous profitability on leverage. The model also yields further implications for corporate policies regarding debt priority structure, investment timing, default thresholds, and credit spreads, contingent on earnings mean reversion dynamics. Our empirical analysis reveals the prevalence of mean reversion in earnings among US firms and provides a comparison of capital structure decisions of firms with mean reverting earnings against firms having non-stationary earnings dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technology is vital for China to achieve its carbon neutrality goal. However, the high cost of CCUS projects, multiple processes, and insufficient policy support make it difficult for firms to invest independently. As an innovative way to achieve waste resource utilization, industrial symbiosis can effectively break through this dilemma. Based on the real options theory, this study establishes decision models for independent investment in a carbon capture and storage project by a coal-fired power plant (CFPP) and independent investment in an enhanced oil recovery project by an oil company. Then, from the perspective of industrial symbiosis, the decision models of cooperative investment in a CCUS project by a CFPP and an oil company are constructed. The models consider the supply–demand relationship of CO2, the correlation between carbon and oil prices, and technological uncertainty. The differential equation method is used to solve the models to obtain the investment thresholds and option values. Finally, all models are applied to a CCUS project in Guangdong Province, China, for simulation analyses. Based on the simulation results of the CCUS project in Guangdong Province, our major findings are as follows: (1) Industrial symbiosis can effectively promote the development of CCUS projects. Compared with the independent investment mode, industrial symbiosis reduces the investment threshold of the project by at least 25.42% and increases the option value by at least 12.94%. (2) It is more likely to trigger the project's investment when CO2 supply and demand are balanced. The CCUS project's investment threshold increases with the imbalance between CO2 supply and demand. (3) Stable carbon and oil prices can promote the project's investment, and increasing the positive correlation coefficient of the prices will increase the project's investment threshold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar-powered irrigation system (SPIS) is a sustainable technology that utilizes renewable energy to pump water for agricultural production. Despite its environmental benefits, its adaptation is challenged by its high investment cost, particularly for small-scale farmers in most developing countries. This study aims to evaluate the attractiveness of shifting to SPIS from diesel-powered irrigation using the case of small-scale farmers in the Philippines. Considering the cost savings from adopting SPIS, this study analyzes the economic viability and optimal timing of investment under diesel price uncertainty. Results found that SPIS is economically attractive with USD 556.26/ha annual cost savings, USD 229.68/ha net present value, 12.49% internal rate of return, and a 5.58-year payback period. Considering the uncertainty in diesel prices, it is more optimal to invest immediately as waiting incurs losses. Investment decisions for SPIS are further favored by decreasing technology costs for solar PV systems, multiple utilization, cost-sharing among farmers, and negative externality of diesel. Findings provide recommendations for the widespread adoption of SPIS for more environment-friendly and sustainable production in agricultural countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research objective of the article is to understand the real options’ generating process during the various stages of the mergers and acquisitions (M&A) projects. In fact, the significant increase in the number of publications on M&A using the real option method from the mid 1990's to today contrasts with the low average rate of its utilization by managers. In Europe, only 6% of CFOs in large companies claim to use the real options method in their capital budgeting process (Horn, Kjærland, Molnár & Steen, 2015). This is due to a lack of familiarity with this method. On this basis, we will resume the main theoretical work concerning the optional approach in M&A. The applied research method aims to enrich and complete this literature by identifying the different types of real options related to M&A projects based on a qualitative and exploratory research study and carried out with experts involved in the French M&A market (investment bankers, merger and acquisition consultants, strategy advisor, financial transaction services manager and accounting experts). By analyzing the discourse of these experts, the outcome of the research identifies real options in all the phases leading up to the closing of an M&A operation. The main conclusions of this research highlight the qualitative role of real options in managing the pre-closing process of a M&A by breaking down each stage of this process into a multitude of options.

Copyright of Contemporary Accounting Research is the property of Canadian Academic Accounting Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Substantial R &D efforts are currently directed towards the development of combined heat and power (CHP) systems that automatically and seamlessly connect to the power grid. In this paper we develop a real options model to assess the impact that the operational flexibility characterizing such systems will have on the optimal timing and capacity associated with investments in CHP plants. We take the viewpoint of a manufacturer operating in an energy-intensive industry who contemplates investing in CHP. We discuss and compare investments in two types of CHP systems: a standard one that is operationally rigid and a technologically advanced one that is operationally flexible. The interaction between temporal and operational flexibility under uncertainty and irreversibility is central to our analysis. We show that operational flexibility guarantees earlier investment but has an ambiguous effect in terms of capacity. In particular, when operational flexibility is very valuable the potential investor is opting for investing in a plant with larger productive capacity. The potential investor chooses a smaller CHP unit if otherwise. A numerical exercise calibrated using data from the Italian pulp and paper and electricity industries complements our theoretical analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using Sino‐Securities Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) ratings data, we examine how environmental uncertainty affects the ESG performance of Chinese A‐share non‐financial listed firms from 2008 to 2020. Our findings show that environmental uncertainty harms corporate ESG performance. In particular, when environmental uncertainty increases, a firm's ESG score and ESG ratings decline due to factors such as financial constraints and industry competition. We argue that as the environmental risk premium rises, it increases the real options value of postponing sustainable investment for a firm. Consequently, the firms tend to cut down their ESG investment by weighing the long‐term benefits and short‐term direct costs. The value of real options changes with the investment opportunities available to the firms and the financing constraints and competitive pressure changes the size of investment opportunities. We argue that higher financing constraints and industry competition restrict available investment opportunities and dilute the negative impact of environmental uncertainty on corporate ESG performance. These results add to the existing literature investigating the impact of uncertainty on corporate ESG performance and offer insights to regulators and enterprise managers. These results are robust to alternate proxies of ESG performance and alternate regression techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We model sequential, corporate investment decisions with time-to-build delays, operating scale mode switching, operating constraints, and path dependencies. We also account for stochastic salvage (abandonment) values that are utilization (path) dependent. Our results highlight a key link between economic depreciation, stochastic salvage values and operational flexibility with asymmetric switching costs. We further identify conditions uncovering a non-conventional impact of resulting path-dependencies on the investment-uncertainty relationship: higher uncertainty and lower asset return shortfall ("dividend yield") may expedite, rather than delay, corporate investment. High switching costs, operating constraints, and economic depreciation may reduce or eliminate these non-conventional effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to assess the role of corporate venture capital (CVC) as option‐creating investments and how corporate investors practice CVC options in their investment decisions. Using a sample of 4206 US firms between 1998 and 2019, our results show that sector fit and geographic fit reduce uncertainty and impact investors' decisions on CVC investments. When exogenous uncertainty is mitigated, CVC‐backed companies experience higher investment amounts than independent venture capital funds (IVC)‐backed ones. The results evidence that follow‐on investments motivate IVC‐backed companies to exit via IPOs. At the same time, a prolonged duration for the organisational learning option leads CVC‐backed companies to exit via acquisition. This study helps investors to reduce uncertainty surrounding investments and improve the usefulness of their real options. We also provide implications for how policymakers target and develop an entrepreneurial ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Real options analysis is an adequate tool with which to value companies and projects under investment uncertainty. Nevertheless, the estimation of the volatility to be employed in the valuation procedure is a challenging task. The volatility parameter not only affects the investment value, but is also important in strategic decision-making. The aim of this paper is to provide a suitable methodology for the estimation of volatility in real option project valuation, with a focus on renewable energy projects. Our procedure is a straightforward extension of the implied volatility methodology employed for financial options; however, our proposal considers the debt-to-equity ratio instead of the moneyness or strike price. Thus, the volatility of the project is the implied volatility obtained from the volatility surface of comparable firms for a certain valuation date and the given debt-to-equity relation of a renewable project. Furthermore, the natural spline model is utilized to calibrate the volatility surface for real option valuation purposes. The empirical results demonstrate that the implied volatility ranges from 3.37% to 113.78%, with median values between 16.42% and 47.10%, in the period from January 2014 to December 2020, for our research study. Finally, we consider that our proposal is a natural and straightforward manner in which to estimate the implied volatility for projects under investment uncertainty, since real option valuation is based on the same idea and tools used in financial option pricing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most essential issues in business partners' collaboration is whether the integration of their businesses creates a collaborative synergy and adds market value to merging companies. This paper aims to develop a methodological framework that will be convenient for managerial praxis and helpful for scholars' research in forecasting explicit synergy and valuing tacit synergy in strategic collaborations. The paper theoretically and empirically contributes twofold to strategic foresight. It employs the ARCTIC framework as an extension of the VRIO model to predict an explicit synergy and real options methodology to measure tacit competence-based synergies in M&A deals. The paper makes several theoretical contributions and managerial implications to corporate finance and strategic management disciplines. Finally, the paper discusses research limitations and future work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar photovoltaic (PV) projects are pivotal in addressing climate change and fostering a sustainable energy future. However, the complex landscape of renewable energy investments, characterized by high upfront costs, market uncertainties, and evolving technologies, demands innovative evaluation methods. The Real Options Approach has emerged as a powerful tool, offering strategic flexibility in decision-making under uncertainty. This paper comprehensively analyzes the application of real options for evaluating solar photovoltaic projects in 2008–2023. Analysis of document descriptors (author keywords, index keywords, and noun phrases extracted from titles and abstracts) reveals that the dominant research topics in the last ten years (2014–2023) include investment optimization, strategic analysis, energy policy, optimization of energy generation and investments in wind energy. These descriptors are used to analyze the evolution of research interests on a two-year basis and reveal the yearly evolution of the research topics. Finally, the concept of emergence is used to unveil emerging research trends, providing valuable insights for researchers and practitioners in the renewable energy sector. Ultimately, this work contributes to a deeper understanding of how real options analysis empowers decision-makers to make informed choices in advancing clean and sustainable energy solutions.

In most cases, the valuation of the investments characterized by various stages with a high level of uncertainty is done through the compound real option valuation (ROV). This decision making support can consider various types of uncertainty that can affects these investment phases, such as that linked to technology. Specifically, within the category of uncertain investments there are the broadband opportunities that can be valued as real options in order to quantify the risks associated with the investment. However, since ROV theory has no definitive way to determine model parameters based on market information, we propose one that can adjust them dynamically. In this paper, to include this aspect in the project valuation, we have unified the ROV with the sentiment analysis, a natural language processing technique that allows us to quantify the polarity of expressions in natural language numerically. In particular, the inherent risks related to the different phases of the project can be extracted from the information present in the surrounding environment and published in newspapers. From there, we obtain a sentiment score which, through appropriate manipulations, manages to modify the evaluation of the success probabilities of each stage. Then, we embed these success probabilities in the ROV in order to provide a valuation methodology that includes the impact of information on the investment decision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new explicit solution is obtained for a general class of two‐dimensional optimal stopping problems arising in real option theory. First, the solvable case of homogeneous and quasi‐homogeneous problems is presented in a comprehensive framework. Then the general problem—including the unsolved case of inhomogeneous functions—is considered and an explicit expression for the value function is obtained in terms of a modified Bessel function of second kind. Then we clarify the link between the general solution method and the more elementary one in the specific (quasi‐)homogeneous problem. Finally, this article provides some useful formulas and some insights for the one‐dimensional case as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study investigated the effects of economic policy uncertainty on corporate investments of publicly traded companies listed in Brazil from 2010 to 2020. Uncertainty about economic policy can intensify the value of the option of waiting for new information and cause delays in corporate investments, as suggested by the Real Options Theory. Method: To analyze this relationship, the System Generalized Method of Moments was used, with panel data for a sample of 153 companies, capable of addressing endogeneity problems caused by data of this nature. Results: It was found that increases in economic policy uncertainty cause reductions in the volumes of capital expenditures of companies, with persisting effects in at least four future quarters. Moreover, corporate investments were more responsive to general economic uncertainty, as measured by the Economic Uncertainty Index -- Brazil (IIE-Br), than to economic policy uncertainty, as measured by the Economic Policy Uncertainty Index (EPU). Contributions: We confirm that uncertainty in the measured dimensions can delay corporate investments in Brazil. The proposed dynamic model is suitable in predicting firm responses to uncertainty in future periods. This study contributes to a better understanding of the dynamics of corporate investment decisions in Brazil. This information is useful for market analysts in their forecasts, as well as policymakers in developing policies that ensure the balance of such decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Contabilidad y Dirección is the property of ACCID and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are engineered water treatment systems that mimic the features and functions of natural wetlands. As a nature-based solution (NBS) for wastewater treatment, CWs are sustainable and cost-effective while providing various ecosystem services. However, their widespread application faces several uncertainties, particularly in developing countries. This study aims to analyze the success factors and challenges in implementing CW projects. Using the case of successful CWs in Bayawan City in the Philippines, this study surveyed 270 household heads from the community benefiting from the CWs and interviewed various CW stakeholders, including the project planner, management, community leader, social workers, and CW workers. The results showed that 89% of the respondents were aware of the existence of CWs in the community and 73% believed in their long-term sustainability. Among the identified factors for the successful implementation of the CW project were government support (43%), good governance (32%), and public support (14%). On the other hand, the implementation was challenged by improper maintenance (63%), overcrowding in the community (11%), foul smells (4%), funding (4%), and climate-related uncertainties, including natural calamities (4%), flooding (7%), earthquakes (4%), and sea level rise (11%). The implications of these success factors and challenges were discussed in the application of real options valuation to CW projects by incorporating the identified uncertainties into flexible decision making in the scaling up and widespread implementation of a more sustainable NBS to water resources management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A typical real estate development project encounters an entrée capital expense for land purchase that is not immediately recovered until the allocated capital for the land acquisition is replaced with new capital that converts the land to a rentable building space. This article presents an idiosyncratic equity financing scheme that eliminates the sunk cost for a land purchase over a real estate development, within a real options framework. The study provides a model solution, numerical results of the option value, and the optimal investment threshold of a real estate development that is initiated through the "flats for land" scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an uncertain environment, it is important to investigate whether to postpone, abandon or immediately invest in photovoltaic (PV) projects. This paper applies a real options model to explore the optimal investment decision for investors and the government’s optimal incentive strategy in China’s distributed PV market. The uncertainties of feed-in tariffs (FIT) and investment costs are included in this study as critical factors affecting the options value of PV projects. Multiple scenarios are designed from different dimensions, including various subsidy durations, different resource areas, and distinct regulatory policies. The results show that not only the current FIT and investment cost affect the investment choice, but also the potential change trend of FIT and investment cost affect the investor’s preference. The results also reveal that appropriate FIT regulation can effectively induce investors who abandon investment to choose to delay investment, and significantly shorten the delay time. These conclusions can provide valuable insights for investors to optimize investment decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We formulate a continuous-time model of a deposit taking bank, operating subject to capital adequacy regulation, and where the bank's loans are exposed to default risk. The bank maximises its market value of equity by appropriately controlling loan and equity issuance, dividend payments, and endogenous closure. Of interest to regulators, we show how the bank responds to the span of capital adequacy requirements and to changes in default variance. We find a nonmonotonic response of bank lending to increased capital requirements (initially increasing and then decreasing). We also find that the probability of early closure (through either insolvency or endogenous closure) can be minimised for a well-chosen capital adequacy ratio. Moreover, the level of capital requirement that minimises the probability of early closure and maximises lending is fairly robust to changes in the bank's default variance/risk; contributing to the ongoing discussion on optimal bank capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the value of the flexibility created by the transportation options in mitigating supply chain transportation risks. We accomplish this aim by developing an innovative computational model which uses the Real Option Valuation method to model the inner flexibility mechanism of the transportation options to choose between the Safety Net carrier and the spot market carrier on the basis of the actual conditions of the spot market (price, service level, and required transportation capacity), which is the foundation of the mitigation capability of transportation options. Through the case of a real supply chain of a large Fortune 100 multinational leader in the Fast Mover Consumer Goods (FMCG) industry, we also investigate the implications of a transportation options response in case of several sources of uncertainties, namely transportation capacity shortage, price volatility and service level reliability. Findings of the application support the understanding of which conditions increase the value of flexibility of the transportation options and how much flexibility is attractive given the initial sunk cost to acquire it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As global climate change intensifies and environmental awareness increases, investing in renewable energy has become a primary economic and social development priority. Photovoltaic (PV) projects, as a clean and sustainable energy technology, have garnered significant attention due to their notable environmental and economic benefits. However, traditional investment evaluation methods such as net present value (NPV) analysis fail to adequately capture the flexibility and future uncertainties inherent in PV project investments. This paper presents a case study analysis proposing a delay option model that incorporates environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors, providing a more scientific and flexible investment decision framework for PV projects. The case study results indicate that considering ESG factors significantly enhances the investment value of PV projects. This model not only provides comprehensive support for PV project investment decisions but also underscores the importance of establishing stringent carbon trading markets and policy incentive mechanisms to promote the widespread adoption and sustainable development of renewable energy projects.