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Giraffe present unique contraception challenges as males persistently pursue females during estrus. Year-round pursuit during frequent recurring estrus can pose significant risk under slippery conditions. Complete ovarian suppression is a useful tool in giraffe because it eliminates estrous behavior, interest from the male, and controls reproduction. Effective reproduction control in giraffes has been achieved with porcine zona pellucida, oral melengestrol acetate, and depot medroxy-progesterone acetate. However, these methods allow some degree of folliculogenesis and estrous behavior. Improvest® is a gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) immunological product that elicits antibodies against GnRH and abrogates the effects of endogenous GnRH. This study evaluated the efficacy of Improvest® for gonadal suppression in seven females and one male giraffe by monitoring steroid hormones. Seven female giraffe were treated intramuscularly with an initial dose, a booster at 4 weeks and maintenance boosters at 3-month intervals (600 µg/dose) for 12 months. Six females were on supplemental contraception during the induction phase because separation from males was not possible. In the male (treated with 400 µg), testosterone concentrations decreased after the second injection. However, even with low serum testosterone concentrations, mounting (of nontreated females) behavior was still observed occasionally. Ovarian activity was suppressed in all treated females and interest by the males stopped; supplemental contraceptives (during the induction phase) did not impede the effect of Improvest®. After 15.3 months (seven doses), Improvest® was discontinued in three females which no longer needed contraception. In these females, ovarian activity was noted approximately 90 days after the last dose.

A recently characterized fungal pathogen, Emydomyces testavorans, has been associated with ulcerative shell disease and significant morbidity in Western pond turtles. Voriconazole is a second-generation triazole antifungal medication that prevents fungal growth through disruption of ergosterol synthesis, causing abnormalities in the fungal cell membrane. Preliminary reports of minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) indicate that voriconazole is effective in vitro against E. testavorans. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography was used to measure voriconazole plasma concentrations in blood samples from healthy Western pond turtles after administration of a single SC injection of 10 mg/kg and after multiple doses (10 mg/kg SC q48h for seven doses). The data were analyzed using a naive pooled approach. Mean (SE) observed time to maximum concentration was 2 (0.18) h for a single dose and 50 (2.2) h for multiple doses; the multiple-dose trial observed mean (SE) maximum concentration was 12.4 (2.2) µg/ml, and observed mean (SE) trough concentration was 1.7 (0.7) µg/ml. Multifocal skin sloughing following the single-dose trial was observed in one turtle and there was a significant increase in polychromatophilic cells amongst the study turtles after the multiple-dose voriconazole trial. No other adverse effects were observed. When voriconazole was administered at 10 mg/kg SC q48h, observed trough plasma concentrations were consistently higher than reported E. testavorans MIC concentrations. Further study is needed to determine the clinical safety and in vivo efficacy of this dose in Western pond turtles.

A recently characterized fungal pathogen

A 14-year-old 120-kg (264-lb) sexually intact male Sumatran tiger (Both animals were immobilized and anesthetized for physical examinations and diagnostic testing. Complete blood counts revealed leukopenia and anemia in both tigers. Splenomegaly was identified on abdominal ultrasonography. Cytologic examination and immunohistochemical staining of splenic samples confirmed intermediate to large B-cell lymphoma; no evidence of lymphoma in surrounding organs was noted.The sire was treated with lomustine and prednisolone. This tiger was euthanized 21 months after initiation of treatment because of chronic progressive renal disease. The male offspring was treated with l-asparaginase but did not respond to the treatment. A splenectomy was performed, and malaise and anorexia resolved. No further chemotherapy was administered, and the male offspring was instead maintained on a low dose of prednisolone. Thirty-two months after diagnosis, the male offspring was still considered to be in remission.To our knowledge, this was the first known report of the diagnosis and management of a splenic B-cell lymphoma in a tiger. Both tigers achieved positive clinical responses and long-term survival by means of different treatment modalities. The finding of such an unusual neoplasm in a male tiger and its male offspring was noteworthy, raising the possibility of a genetic predisposition for this lymphoma type.

Infection by equine herpesvirus (EHV) strains (EHV-1, EHV-9) in ursid species, including polar bears ( Ursus maritimus), has been associated with neurological disease and death. A serosurvey of captive exotic equid and polar bear populations in US Association of Zoos and Aquaria institutions was performed to determine the prevalence of EHV strains using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests. Equid species surveyed included zebra ( Equus spp.), Przewalski's wild horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii), Persian onager ( Equus hemionus), and Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis). A questionnaire regarding husbandry and medical variables was distributed to institutions housing polar bears. No polar bears tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of blood or nasal swabs. No exotic equids tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of blood, but two exotic equids ( n = 2/22; 9%) tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of nasal swabs. On ELISA, polar bears infrequently were positive for EHV-1 ( n = 5/38; 13%). Exotic equids were positive for EHV-4 on ELISA more frequently ( n = 30/43; 70%) than for EHV-1 ( n = 8/43; 19%). Nine institutions submitted samples from both exotic equids and polar bears, two of which had both exotic equids and polar bears positive for EHVs by ELISA. Each of these institutions reported that the polar bear and exotic equid exhibits were within 80 m of each other and that risk factors for fomite transmission between exhibits based on husbandry practices were present. One institution that did not house exotic equids had a polar bear test positive for EHV-1 on ELISA, with no history of exposure to exotic equids. Further testing of captive polar bears and exotic equids is recommended, as is modification of husbandry practices to limit exposure of polar bears to exotic equids.

Aleutian mink disease virus is the type species in the genus Amdoparvovirus, and in mink and other Mustelidae can cause either subclinical disease or fatal chronic immune stimulation and immune complex disease. The authors describe a novel amdoparvovirus in the endangered red panda ( Ailurus fulgens), discovered using viral metagenomics. The authors analyzed the prevalence, tissue distribution, and disease association by PCR, in situ hybridization, electron microscopy, and histology in a group of 6 red pandas from a single zoological collection. The study incorporates a fecal shedding survey and analysis of tissues from 4 necropsied animals over a 12-year span. The tentatively named red panda amdoparvovirus (RpAPV) was detected in the feces and/or tissues of all animals tested. At necropsy of 1 geriatric animal, infection was associated with pyogranulomatous peritonitis, pancreatitis, and myocarditis. Other animals had detectable low-level viral nucleic acid in lymph nodes and both oral and intestinal epithelium at the time of necropsy. Full-length genome sequences of RpAPV strains from 2 animals had 12% sequence divergence, demonstrating genetic diversity even among in-contact animals. RpAPV is a persistent infection in this cohort of red pandas, and has variable clinical expression.

Live-stranded pinnipeds often present to rehabilitation centers systemically debilitated with dehydration and poor perfusion. In many terrestrial mammals, blood lactate elevation has been correlated with global tissue hypoxia and decreased circulating blood volume. Serial blood lactate measurements in companion animals and humans have been used to guide fluid resuscitation therapy and evaluate prognosis. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the prognostic value of serial blood lactate levels in live-stranded pinnipeds in a rehabilitation setting. The secondary objectives were to evaluate the use of a point-of-care lactate meter, and potassium oxalate–sodium fluoride (gray-top) tubes for storing samples for lactate analysis in pinniped patients. Fifty-five live-stranded pinnipeds (30 northern elephant seals [Mirounga angustirostris], 21 Pacific harbor seals [Phoca vitulina richardsi], and four California sea lions [Zalophus californianus]) that presented to a rehabilitation center were manually restrained for blood collection and lactate measurement using a point-of-care analyzer (Lactate Plus™) prior to fluid or other medical therapy. Lactate measurements were repeated 72 hr post admission and prior to euthanasia or release. Plasma samples from gray-top tubes were frozen for 30–100 days at –80°C, then thawed and evaluated using both the LactatePlus and bench-top (ABL 815) analyzers. The point-of-care analyzer was successful in measuring lactate in pinnipeds. Gray-top tubes were effective at preserving lactate levels in frozen plasma samples for up to 100 days. Released animals had significantly greater lactate clearance at 72 hr (P = 0.039) than animals that died or were euthanized. Therefore, lactate clearance, determined by serial blood lactate measurements, may be useful for evaluating prognosis in live-stranded pinnipeds. Initial lactate and lactate values prior to euthanasia or release were not significantly associated with outcome. Given these findings, clinicians should interpret isolated lactate values in pinnipeds with caution.

Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is an emerging threat to snake health worldwide. We report a case of disseminated ophidiomycosis in a California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) from Plymouth, Amador County, California, US, which is the first report of the disease in this species and in a free-ranging snake in California.

Protein electrophoresis has recognized applications in determining the health status of various species. While reference intervals for electrophoresis have been determined for psittacine and raptor species, there are none reported for Phoenicopteriformes species. Reference intervals for haptoglobin and protein fractions obtained by electrophoresis were determined for the American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) based on plasma samples from 39 captive birds. The reference intervals were as follows: haptoglobin, 0.17-0.8 mg/ml; total protein, 3.65-6.38 g/dl; prealbumin, 0.26-1.9 g/dl; albumin, 1.51-3.12 g/dl; α-1 globulin, 0.06-0.38 g/dl; α-2 globulin, 0.17-0.67 g/dl; β globulin, 0.38-1.33 g/dl; γ globulin, 0.26-0.68 g/dl; albumin : globulin ratio, 0.93-2.17. As captive flamingos often suffer from pododermatitis, feet of all flamingos were scored to determine if pododermatitis would be reflected in the acute phase proteins. Spearman rank correlation was performed on each of the protein fractions and pododermatitis scores, and only albumin had a significant correlation. This indicates that albumin, as a negative acute phase protein, may be a marker for this disease process.

Information regarding analgesics in pinnipeds is limited. This study aimed to establish the pharmacokinetic parameters of a single subcutaneous dose of sustained release buprenorphine (Buprenorphine SR) in juvenile northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) with regard to its potential to provide long-lasting analgesia that requires infrequent dosing. Seals (n=26) were administered a single dose of sustained release buprenorphine at 0.12 mg/kg s.c. Blood samples were collected from the extradural intervertebral vein at 0 hr and at three or four of the following time points: 0.5, 1, 2, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 96, 120, and 144 hr. Seals were examined daily for systemic and local adverse reactions. Plasma was analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry for buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine concentrations. A noncompartmental analysis for pharmacokinetic parameters was calculated using standard methods and equations. An average maximum concentration of 1.21 ng/ml (0.3-2.9 ng/ml) was detected 12 hr postadministration. Concentrations were quantifiable up to 144 hr postadministration but were below those expected to provide analgesia in some other species. No systemic adverse effects were noted in healthy seals receiving sustained release buprenorphine. Cellulitis or abscesses at the injection site were observed in 6/26 (23%) seals between 24 and 168 hr postadministration. Adverse local effects suggest that this drug should be used with caution in northern elephant seals.

A 15-year-old, 113 kg intact male Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) was evaluated for weight loss, polydipsia, and intermittent hematuria. The tiger was immobilized for diagnostic testing including blood work, urinalysis, and abdominal ultrasound. Laboratory testing demonstrated macro- and microhematuria, azotemia, and an increased urine protein:creatinine ratio. Abdominal ultrasound revealed bilateral ureterolithiasis as well as hydronephrosis and ureteral dilation. Ultrasonography performed 5 months later revealed worsening of the right-sided hydronephrosis and hydroureter and a decrease in the severity of dilation on the left side presumably from passage of the left-sided ureteral calculi. Nephroureteral decompression via the placement of a stent was elected. A pigtail ureteral catheter (8.2 French diameter) was placed in the right ureter via an antegrade percutaneous approach utilizing ultrasound and fluoroscopic-guidance. Following stent placement, macrohematuria resolved although microhematuria was noted in opportunistic urine samples. Five months after stent placement, the azotemia had mildly progressed, the urine protein:creatinine ratio was improved, the right hydronephrosis and hydroureter had completely resolved, and the ureteral stent remained in the appropriate position. The tiger had clinically improved with a substantial increase in appetite, weight, and activity level. Ureteral stenting allowed for nephroureteral decompression in the captive large felid of this report, and no complications were encountered. Ureteral stenting provided a minimally invasive method of managing ureteral obstruction in this patient and could be considered in future cases due to the clinical improvement and low morbidity. Zoo Biol. 34:193–197, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals Inc.

A 25-year-old, male mealy Amazon parrot (Amazona farinose) with a history of polycythemia, hepatomegaly, and epistaxis was evaluated for progressive lethargy and anorexia. Clinical laboratory testing revealed severe polycythemia (71%), hypophosphatemia (1.6 mg/dL), and mild hypokalemia (2.8 mEq/L). Radiographs showed marked hepatomegaly and loss of air sac space. Despite supportive treatments, the bird's condition deteriorated, and it developed ataxia, was unable to fly, and became oxygen dependent. An echocardiogram, including an air bubble study, revealed a right-to-left atrial shunt and presumed pulmonary arterial hypertension. The bird was started on periodic phlebotomy (5–10 mL/kg q6wk) to reduce packed cell volume and sildenafil citrate (2.5 mg/kg PO q8h) for treatment of suspected pulmonary arterial hypertension. One week later, the patient was weaned off oxygen, and 24 days after initial presentation, the parrot was returned to its outdoor exhibit. Intermittent periods of increased respiratory rate and effort have been reported but have resolved without additional treatments. Epistaxis, once common in this bird, has not been noted since initiating treatment with sildenafil citrate 15 months ago.

Intraocular pressure was measured using rebound tonometry in American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber), with the head in an upright standing position and when lowered in a feeding position, to establish a reference range. Mean ± standard deviation (SD) (range) intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in an upright position was right eye (OD) = 10.9 ± 1.8 mm Hg (7–15 mm Hg) and left eye (OS) = 11.1 ± 2.3 mm Hg (8–21 mm Hg). Median intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in an upright position was OD and OS = 11 mm Hg. Mean intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in a feeding position was OD = 14.3 ± 2.5 mm Hg (10–22 mm Hg) and OS = 14.4 ± 2.7 mm Hg (11–24 mm Hg), which were significantly higher. Median intraocular pressure for flamingos with the head in a feeding position was OD and OS = 14 mm Hg.

Tulathromycin, a long acting macrolide antibiotic, has demonstrated efficacy against respiratory pathogens including Mycoplasma bovis and M. hyopneumoniae. A pharmacokinetic study was performed to evaluate the clinical applicability of tulathromycin in desert tortoises following a single intramuscular dose of 5 mg/kg. A single blood sample was collected from 110 different desert tortoises at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 4, 8, 24, 48, 72, 120, and 240 h following drug administration. Plasma concentrations of the parent form of tulathromycin were measured using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. As each tortoise was only bled once, pharmacokinetic parameters were initially estimated using a naïve pooled data approach. Given the variability in the data, population-based compartmental modeling was also performed. Using nonparametric population compartmental modeling, a two-compartment model with first-order absorption and elimination best fit the data. An observed Cmax of 36.2 ± 29.7 μg/mL was detected at 0.25 h (observed Tmax ). The elimination half-life (T½el ) was long (77.1 h) resulting in detectable plasma concentrations 240 h postadministration. This study represents a preliminary step in evaluating the utility of tulathromycin in chelonian species and demonstrates that population data modeling offers advantages for estimating pharmacokinetic parameters where sparse data sampling occurs and there is substantial variability in the data.

An 11-year-old female Chinese crocodile lizard (Shinisaurus crocodilurus) with presumed seizures was examined. Complete blood count, plasma biochemistry and MRI did not identify a cause of seizures and thus cryptogenic epilepsy was diagnosed. Electroencephalogram (EEG) was performed on the affected lizard and a healthy conspecific, revealing a lack of normal background electrical activity in the affected individual compared with the normal individual. The patient was treated with oral phenobarbital and serum phenobarbital levels were routinely measured. Although phenobarbital was an effective antiepileptic drug, the patient9s clinical condition worsened and the lizard was humanely euthanased after 70 days of therapy. Postmortem examination and histopathology did not identify a cause for the seizures. This is the first description of seizures, MRI, EEG and seizure treatment in a Chinese crocodile lizard.

A five-year-old male greater hedgehog tenrec ( Setifer setosus ) presented with an oral mass and osteolysis of the mandible. Histopathology characterised the mass as a squamous cell carcinoma with extension into the alveolar bone. The patient was treated with intralesional bleomycin, clindamycin, meloxicam and enrofloxacin. After seven weeks of treatment, the animal9s condition declined. Radiographs indicated progression of the lesions. Due to its worsening clinical condition and poor response to therapy, the animal was humanely euthanased. This is the first description of squamous cell carcinoma in a greater hedgehog tenrec and the first reported use of intralesional bleomycin in this species.

A 22-year-old captive Brazilian rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria cenchria) gave birth to four offspring after being housed with a vasectomized male. Sexual reproduction as a result of failed prior vasectomy, recanalization of the vas deferens, or prolonged sperm storage was ruled out using the clinical history, histopathology, and gross necropsy. Short tandem repeat (STR) DNA markers were genotyped in the male, female, and four offspring. None of the offspring possessed a diagnostic STR allele present in the potential sire. In addition, all offspring were homozygous at each STR locus evaluated, supporting parthenogenetic reproduction. This is the first report of parthenogenesis in a Brazilian rainbow boa and has implications for the conservation of reptiles maintained in captive breeding programs. Zoo Biol. 32:172–176, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Capture myopathy and associated death have been reported with capture and restraint of greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) and lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor). In chickens (Gallus gallus), blood lactate concentration levels have been used as indicators of muscle damage. Lactate has also been used to predict survival in humans and dogs. The goals of this study were to validate two common methods for measuring lactate (i-STAT and VetTest analyzers) in flamingo plasma by comparing measurements to a reference analyzer; and to correlate blood lactate concentration levels in captured flamingos with the duration and difficulty of capture as a possible indicator of capture myopathy. Twenty-seven banked flamingo plasma samples were run in triplicate on each of the three blood analyzers. Values from the i-STAT analyzer were consistently lower than those from the ABL analyzer, while values from the VetTest were consistently higher than those from the ABL analyzer. However, there was a good level of correlation between all three analyzers. Two of the three analyzers were determined to have acceptable total allowable error levels, calculated at 3.6% for the ABL and 10.7% for the VetTest. For clinical purposes, both the i-STAT and the VetTest analyzers provide adequate evaluation of lactate levels when serial samples are measured on the same analyzer. After validating the assay, 34 captive flamingos were captured for routine examinations. Blood lactate concentration levels were positively correlated with the length of time of the individual capture, but lactate did not increase significantly as capture difficulty increased. Only one animal was considered to have a difficult capture. No flamingos demonstrated clinical signs of capture myopathy during this study. Further research is required to determine if blood lactate concentration is a useful indicator of capture myopathy.

Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane in thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) and compare MAC obtained via mechanical and electrical stimulation. Animals—15 healthy thick-billed parrots. Procedures—Anesthesia was induced in each parrot by administration of sevoflurane in oxygen. An end-tidal sevoflurane concentration of 2.5% was established in the first bird. Fifteen minutes was allowed for equilibration. Then, 2 types of noxious stimulation (mechanical and electrical) were applied; stimuli were separated by 15 minutes. Responses to stimuli were graded as positive or negative. For a positive or negative response to a stimulus, the target end-tidal sevoflurane concentration of the subsequent bird was increased or decreased by 10%, respectively. The MAC was calculated as the mean end-tidal sevoflurane concentration during crossover events, defined as instances in which independent pairs of birds evaluated in succession had opposite responses. A quantal method was used to determine sevoflurane MAC. Physiologic variables and arterial blood gas values were also measured. Results—Via quantal analysis, mean sevoflurane MAC in thick-billed parrots determined with mechanical stimulation was 2.35% (90% fiducial interval, 1.32% to 2.66%), which differed significantly from the mean sevoflurane MAC determined with electrical stimulation, which was 4.24% (90% fiducial interval, 3.61% to 8.71%). Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Sevoflurane MAC in thick-billed parrots determined by mechanical stimulation was similar to values determined in chickens and mammals. Sevoflurane MAC determined by electrical stimulation was significantly higher, which suggested that the 2 types of stimulation did not induce similar results in thick-billed parrots.

This study evaluated selected bacteriologic and nutritional components of a commercially prepared ground raw horsemeat diet as part of a raw meat safety program. Six lots of meat were analyzed in triplicate. Frozen meat samples were thawed for 44 hr at 5°C. Meat samples were tested at three times during thawing (t = 0, 24, 44 hr) for selected bacteria. Samples were screened for Salmonella sp. using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Escherichia coli and total coliform bacteria were quantified using a ready-made culture medium system. Proximate, energy, macro and trace mineral composition was determined at a reference laboratory. Salmonella sp. antigen was detected in one sample of meat at t = 0 hr. Frozen meat samples had low average maximum expected numbers of E. coli and coliforms. The average maximum number of E. coli did not change significantly at t = 24 or 44 hr, but the average maximum number of coliforms increased significantly by t = 44 hr. These bacteriologic tests were easily incorporated into a raw meat safety program. Median concentrations of moisture, dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, ash, calcium, and phosphorus conformed to the guaranteed analysis but median crude fiber exceeded the guaranteed maximum. Median magnesium, potassium, and sodium concentrations conformed to the approximate nutrient content. Median concentrations of copper exceeded, whereas iron, zinc, and manganese fell below, the approximate nutrient content. Median copper and manganese concentrations exceeded the National Research Council's recommendation for adult domestic cats, whereas iron and zinc were below the National Research Council's recommendations for adult cats.

Surgical procedures of the wing are commonly performed in companion, captive, and wild avian species. To develop a clinically applicable brachial plexus nerve block technique for perioperative analgesia in birds, 8 adult female mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) were anesthetized and used in several local anesthetic trials with bupivacaine (2 or 8 mg/kg) or a combination of lidocaine (15 mg/kg) and epinephrine (3.8 microg/kg) perineurally; equal volumes of saline were administered as control treatments. Both axillary and dorsal approaches to the brachial plexus were evaluated. With the axillary approach, radial and ulnar compound nerve action potentials (CNAP), sensory nerve conduction velocities (SNCVs), and cord dorsum potentials (CDPs) were recorded after distal sensory nerve stimulation. Values were recorded before and at 5, 30, and 60 minutes after injection of local anesthetic or saline. Birds were monitored for the presence of a wing droop and a change in motor function on recovery from anesthesia. Results were highly variable for all techniques. No technique significantly decreased CDPs or resulted in consistent wing droop. Radial and ulnar CNAPs, SNCVs, and CDPs were consistently recorded in all birds. Variable results might indicate that the treatment, concentration, or volume of local anesthetic used was ineffective in producing local anesthesia. Electrodiagnostic methods used in these ducks to assess loss of sensory nerve conduction might not be sensitive enough to assess the effects of local anesthesia. Further research is needed to identify methods for assessing the efficacy of brachial plexus nerve blockade in birds.

Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha). Animals—15 healthy thick-billed parrots. Procedures—Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. In the first bird that was anesthetized, end-tidal isoflurane concentration was maintained at 1.0% for 15 minutes. After this period of anesthetic equilibration, an end-tidal gas sample was obtained for verification of isoflurane concentration. A toe was pinched to determine the bird's response to pain, and the bird was then allowed to recover from aesthesia. To determine MAC, a so-called up-and-down approach was subsequently used in all 15 birds. Compared with the isoflurane concentration used for MAC determination in the first bird, maintenance isoflurane concentration for the second bird was increased by approximately 10% if the first bird reacted and decreased by approximately 10% if the first bird did not react to a toe pinch. These steps were then followed until all 15 birds had been anesthetized. Crossover events occurred when birds in sequence had discordant results (ie, 1 reactor and 1 nonreactor). The MAC was defined as the mean of the isoflurane concentrations measured during these crossover events. Results—Mean MAC of isoflurane in thick-billed parrots was estimated to be 1.07% (95% confidence interval, 0.97% to 1.16%). Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Isoflurane MAC appears to be lower in thick-billed parrots than the MAC determined for other bird species. Determination of the species-specific requirements of thick-billed parrots should allow isoflurane anesthesia to be performed more safely in this endangered species.

Physical examination of an asymptomatic 20-yr-old intact female spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) revealed a midabdominal mass. A complete blood count (CBC) revealed peripheral lymphocytosis. Abdominal ultrasonography and laparoscopy confirmed severe splenomegaly. Cytologic examination of a bone-marrow core and histologic examination of spleen and liver biopsy samples revealed neoplastic small lymphocytes. Immunohistochemical staining of liver and spleen samples with the use of leukocyte-specific monoclonal antibodies showed that the neoplastic lymphocytes were immunoreactive to T-lymphocyte CD3 receptor and immunonegative to B-lymphocyte CD79a receptor. The morphology and distribution of neoplastic T-lymphocytes within the spleen, liver, peripheral blood, and bone marrow was most consistent with chronic T-lymphocytic leukemia. Treatment with chlorambucil and prednisone effectively decreased the lymphocyte count, but was associated with thrombocytopenia, which resolved after chlorambucil treatment was temporarily discontinued. Chemotherapy was resumed with a single dose of L-asparaginase, followed by a lower dosage of chlorambucil and continued prednisone. Two years after initial diagnosis, the hyena developed a hemoabdomen and was euthanized. Neoplastic T-lymphocytes were present in spleen, liver, visceral and peripheral lymph nodes, lungs, heart, kidney, adrenal glands, mesentery, intestines, pancreas, brain, and bone marrow.

Lion lentivirus (LLV; also known as feline immunodeficiency virus of lion, Panthera leo [FIVPle]) is present in free-ranging and captive lion populations at a seroprevalence of up to 100%; however, clinical signs are rarely reported. LLV displays up to 25% interclade sequence diversity, suggesting that it has been in the lion population for some time and may be significantly host adapted. Three captive lions diagnosed with LLV infection displayed lymphocyte subset alterations and progressive behavioral, locomotor, and neuroanatomic abnormalities. No evidence of infection with other potential neuropathogens was found. Antemortem electrodiagnostics and radiologic imaging indicated a diagnosis consistent with lentiviral neuropathy. PCR was used to determine a partial lentiviral genomic sequence and to quantify the proviral burden in eight postmortem tissue specimens. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the virus was consistent with the LLV detected in other captive and free-ranging lions. Despite progressive neurologic signs, the proviral load in tissues, including several regions of the brain, was low; furthermore, gross and histopathologic changes in the brain were minimal. These findings suggest that the symptoms in these animals resulted from nonspecific encephalopathy, similar to human immunodeficiency virus, FIV, and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) neuropathies, rather than a direct effect of active viral replication. The association of neuropathy and lymphocyte subset alterations with chronic LLV infection suggests that long-term LLV infection can have detrimental effects for the host, including death. This is similar to reports of aged sootey mangabeys dying from diseases typically associated with end-stage SIV infection and indicates areas for further research of lentiviral infections of seemingly adapted natural hosts, including mechanisms of host control and viral adaptation.

A 15-year-old, 113 kg intact male Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) was evaluated for weight loss, polydipsia, and intermittent hematuria. The tiger was immobilized for diagnostic testing including blood work, urinalysis, and abdominal ultrasound. Laboratory testing demonstrated macro- and microhematuria, azotemia, and an increased urine protein:creatinine ratio. Abdominal ultrasound revealed bilateral ureterolithiasis as well as hydronephrosis and ureteral dilation. Ultrasonography performed 5 months later revealed worsening of the right-sided hydronephrosis and hydroureter and a decrease in the severity of dilation on the left side presumably from passage of the left-sided ureteral calculi. Nephroureteral decompression via the placement of a stent was elected. A pigtail ureteral catheter (8.2 French diameter) was placed in the right ureter via an antegrade percutaneous approach utilizing ultrasound and fluoroscopic-guidance. Following stent placement, macrohematuria resolved although microhematuria was noted in opportunistic urine samples. Five months after stent placement, the azotemia had mildly progressed, the urine protein:creatinine ratio was improved, the right hydronephrosis and hydroureter had completely resolved, and the ureteral stent remained in the appropriate position. The tiger had clinically improved with a substantial increase in appetite, weight, and activity level. Ureteral stenting allowed for nephroureteral decompression in the captive large felid of this report, and no complications were encountered. Ureteral stenting provided a minimally invasive method of managing ureteral obstruction in this patient and could be considered in future cases due to the clinical improvement and low morbidity.

Nine wild-caught brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis, were anesthetized with 5 mg/kg of propofol. Mean duration of anesthesia was 24 minutes. Eight of nine the snakes experienced 30 to 60 seconds of self-limiting apnea immediately following propofol injection. Two of the nine snakes failed to achieve a surgical level of anesthesia, as assessed by positive response to tail and vent pinch. Only mild changes in heart rate, cardiac blood gases, ETCO2, and SpO2 were observed. The magnitude of these changes were small, which correlated with smooth, uncomplicated anesthesias experienced by all study snakes. Propofol appears to be a safe and effective anesthetic for restraint or minor procedures in brown tree snakes. Standard techniques used to monitor heart and respiratory rates should be adequate to assess cardiopulmonary status of healthy brown tree snakes anesthetized with a single 5 mg/kg bolus of propofol.

Fatal abomasal impaction, often combined with omasal impaction, was diagnosed in 11 bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) from five different zoologic collections in the United States between 1981 and 2009. Nine of 11 cases occurred in young females (10 mo-7 yr old) and typical clinical signs prior to diagnosis or death included partial or complete anorexia, dehydration, and scant fecal production. Although the clinical histories in several of the earlier cases are incomplete, clinical signs were known to begin shortly after an anesthetic event in five of 11 bongo (45%). Pedigree analysis indicates that affected bongo were descendants of multiple founders and not from a single family line, suggesting that the development of abomasal impaction is not a strictly inheritable trait. Treatment, when attempted, was variable and included abomasotomy and removal of impacted ingesta, drug therapy (prokinetic drugs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, antimicrobials), fluid therapy, and administration of oral lubricants or intralesional stool softeners. Based on the outcomes in the cases presented here, the prognosis for bongo with abomasal impaction is considered poor to grave.

A 22-year-old captive Brazilian rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria cenchria) gave birth to four offspring after being housed with a vasectomized male. Sexual reproduction as a result of failed prior vasectomy, recanalization of the vas deferens, or prolonged sperm storage was ruled out using the clinical history, histopathology, and gross necropsy. Short tandem repeat (STR) DNA markers were genotyped in the male, female, and four offspring. None of the offspring possessed a diagnostic STR allele present in the potential sire. In addition, all offspring were homozygous at each STR locus evaluated, supporting parthenogenetic reproduction. This is the first report of parthenogenesis in a Brazilian rainbow boa and has implications for the conservation of reptiles maintained in captive breeding programs.

Hematology and plasma biochemistry parameters are useful in the assessment and management of threatened and endangered species. Although reference ranges are readily available for many mammalian species, reference ranges for snakes are lacking for most species. We determined hematology and plasma biochemistry reference ranges for giant garter snakes (Thamnophis gigas) and valley garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis fitchi) living in four management areas in the Central Valley of California. White blood cell, heterophil, lymphocyte, and azurophil counts in giant garter snakes were approximately twice the values of valley garter snakes. Statistically significant differences in aspartate aminotransferase, globulin, and potassium between the two species did not appear clinically significant. No significant differences were found in the measured parameters between male and female giant garter snakes. Some differences were found among collection sites. These reference ranges provide baseline data for comparisons over time and between collection sites.

A 19-yr-old intact male Coquerel's sifaka (Propithecus coquereli) was evaluated for a crusting facial dermatopathy. Fungal culture and histopathology of skin biopsies were consistent with dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and treatment with the antifungal medication terbinafine was initiated. After 1 mo of treatment, all clinical signs had resolved and a fungal culture of the skin was negative. The sifaka was treated with terbinafine for a total of 81 days. Two additional fungal cultures were taken and found to be negative for the presence of dermatophytes, the last culture being taken 1 mo after discontinuation of terbinafine. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of dermatophytosis in a prosimian species and the first reported treatment of a prosimian with the antifungal drug terbinafine.

Clinical chemistry tests are essential for the diagnosis and monitoring of disease in birds. The small volume of blood that can be obtained from many avian species limits the use of routine in-house chemistry analyzers. The aim of this study was to examine the accuracy and precision of avian plasma chemistry values obtained by use of a benchtop analyzer in samples diluted with sterile water, as compared with undiluted samples. Whole blood samples were collected from 13 clinically healthy thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha). The samples were placed in lithium heparin tubes and centrifuged and the plasma decanted. One aliquot was analyzed immediately using a VetScan benchtop analyzer with an avian-reptile-specific rotor that included 12 analytes. The remainder of the plasma was divided into two aliquots and stored at -80 degrees C until analysis. One of these aliquots was diluted 1:1, 1:1.5, 1:2, and 1:2.5 with sterile water to give final dilutions of 1:2, 1:2.5, 1:3, and 1:3.5, respectively. The other aliquot was pooled with the 12 other samples to create a plasma pool. The undiluted plasma pool and two final dilutions (1:2 and 1:3) of the pooled plasma were analyzed in replicate (n = 20) to determine intra- and interassay imprecision. Each dilution was analyzed using the avian-reptile rotor and the results multiplied by the appropriate dilution factor to obtain the final result. Significant differences were observed in clinical chemistry results obtained from diluted plasma samples for all analytes except aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, and glucose. Uric acid concentration was not significantly different at dilutions of up to 1:3. Bile acids, globulins, and sodium concentrations were below the limit of detection in all diluted samples and were not statistically analyzed. Based on these results, dilution with sterile water is not recommended for biochemical analysis of avian plasma using the VetScan benchtop analyzer.

Objective—To develop a clinically applicable technique for recording cord dorsum potentials (CDPs) following stimulation of the radial and ulnar nerves and establish reference values for radial and ulnar sensory nerve conduction velocities (SNCVs) in the wings of ducks. Animals—8 clinically normal adult female mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). Procedures—Radial and ulnar compound nerve action potentials (CNAPs) and CDPs were recorded following distal sensory nerve stimulation. The CDPs were recorded from the interarcuate space between the last cervical vertebra and the first thoracic vertebra. Surgical dissection and transection of the brachial plexus in 1 anesthetized duck were performed to identify nerve root location and confirm functional loss of nerve conduction assessed by loss of the CDP. Results—Radial and ulnar CNAPs and CDPs were consistently recorded in all birds. Median radial SNCV was 38.3 m/s (range, 36.0 to 49.0 m/s), and ulnar SNCV was 35.3 m/s (range, 28.0 to 40.0 m/s). Surgical transection of the brachial plexus resulted in complete loss of the CDP. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Measurement of radial and ulnar SNCV or CDP is feasible in isoflurane-anesthetized mallard ducks. The CDP accurately reflects sensory nerve conduction through the brachial plexus. Assessment of brachial plexus function in mallard ducks via evaluations of SNCVs and CDPs may have application for diagnosis of traumatic injuries to the brachial plexus, evaluation of neuropathies associated with exposure to toxic chemicals, and assessment of the efficacy of interventions such as brachial plexus nerve blockade.

An adult male black-necked swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus) was evaluated for a routine physical examination and West Nile virus vaccination. Nine days later, the swan was hospitalized for weakness, dehydration, tremors, and leukocytosis. Gradual clinical improvement was seen over a 2-wk course of supportive care. However, the animal became acutely weak and was found dead. Histopathology revealed severe granulomatous pneumonia and air sacculitis with dissemination to the liver, spleen, intestine, and coelom. Mycobacterial infection was confirmed by identification of acid-fast bacilli within tissue sections and by polymerase chain reaction. Concurrent West Nile virus infection was identified in sections of brain by using immunohistochemistry.

A captive 19-yr-old female Pacific gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer) presented for evaluation after keeper staff noticed a midbody swelling. Physical examination revealed a 6.6 × 3 × 3-cm slightly mobile mass approximately midway between the head and tail. Distension of the gallbladder was diagnosed using radiographs, ultrasonography, and fine needle aspiration. Pre-operative coelomic ultrasound revealed close association between the gallbladder, aorta, and vena cava. Repeated cholecystocentesis failed to resolve the distension and a cholecystectomy was performed. Mycobacterium chelonae was isolated from the removed gallbladder and the snake was treated with azithromycin 10 mg/kg PO every 7 days for 6 months. Acid fast organisms were identified on a fecal smear during the peri-operative period. None of the usual clinical signs of mycobacteriosis in reptiles, such as respiratory disease, weight loss, or lethargy, were observed in the present case and the patient continues to thrive. Cholecystecto...