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Background: Dry eye disease (DED) is a complication of dyslipidemia (DLP) that is caused by metabolic syndrome and increased inflammation. This research aimed to assess leukocyte and systemic inflammation index ratios as potential biomarkers for systemic inflammation in dyslipidemia patients with dry eye disease (DLP-DED)., Methods: Several blood biomarkers were studied in 32 patients with DLP-DED (study group) and 63 patients with DLP-only (control group). The evaluated blood biomarkers included specific systemic inflammation index ratios, such as the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), monocyte-to-lymphocyte ratio (MLR), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte and platelet ratio (NLPR), and lipid profiles, such as total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), triglyceride (TG), albumin (ALB), and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels., Results: Lymphocyte levels were significantly greater in the DLP-DED group than in the DLP-only group (P = 0.044). In addition, a significant negative correlation between HDL and the NLPR (P = 0.007; r= -0.428) and a significant negative correlation between the serum ALB concentration and the PLR (P = 0.008; r= -0.420) were identified as potential inflammatory predictors of DLP-DED., Conclusion: The findings of this study suggest that patients with DLP-DED may benefit from routine blood monitoring of their elevated lipid profile and blood inflammatory biomarkers, such as CRP, leukocytes, and systemic inflammation index ratios (NLR, PLR, MLR, and NLPR), to reduce the complications of DLP on ocular health. The correlation data suggest that the NLPR, PLR, serum ALB concentration, and serum HDL concentration may be valuable inflammatory biomarkers in DLP-DED patients. More research is required to ascertain the significance of the NLR, PLR, MLR, and NLPR and the additive role that leukocytes play., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Splice-site variants in cardiac genes may predispose carriers to potentially lethal arrhythmias. To investigate, we screened 1315 probands and first-degree relatives enrolled in the Canadian Hearts in Rhythm Organization (HiRO) registry. 10% (134/1315) of patients in the HiRO registry carry variants within 10 base-pairs of the intron-exon boundary with 78% (104/134) otherwise genotype negative. These 134 probands were carriers of 57 unique variants. For each variant, American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) classification was revisited based on consensus between nine in silico tools. Due in part to the in silico algorithms, seven variants were reclassified from the original report, with the majority (6/7) downgraded. Our analyses predicted 53% (30/57) of variants to be likely/pathogenic. For the 57 variants, an average of 9 tools were able to score variants within splice sites, while 6.5 tools responded for variants outside these sites. With likely/pathogenic classification considered a positive outcome, the ACMG classification was used to calculate sensitivity/specificity of each tool. Among these, Combined Annotation Dependent Depletion (CADD) had good sensitivity (93%) and the highest response rate (131/134, 98%), dbscSNV was also sensitive (97%), and SpliceAI was the most specific (64%) tool. Splice variants remain an important consideration in gene elusive inherited arrhythmia syndromes. Screening for intronic variants, even when restricted to the ±10 positions as performed here may improve genetic testing yield. We compare 9 freely available in silico tools and provide recommendations regarding their predictive capabilities. Moreover, we highlight several novel cardiomyopathy-associated variants which merit further study., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to European Society of Human Genetics.)

Cardiac troponin C (cTnC) is the critical Ca 2+ -sensing component of the troponin complex. Binding of Ca 2+ to cTnC triggers a cascade of conformational changes within the myofilament that culminate in force production. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM)-associated TNNC1 variants generally induce a greater degree and duration of Ca 2+ binding, which may underly the hypertrophic phenotype. Regulation of contraction has long been thought to occur exclusively through Ca 2+ binding to site II of cTnC. However, work by several groups including ours suggest that Mg 2+ , which is several orders of magnitude more abundant in the cell than Ca 2+ , may compete for binding to the same cTnC regulatory site. We previously used isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) to demonstrate that physiological concentrations of Mg 2+ may decrease site II Ca 2+ -binding in both N-terminal and full-length cTnC. Here, we explore the binding of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ to cTnC harbouring a series of TNNC1 variants thought to be causal in HCM. ITC and thermodynamic integration (TI) simulations show that A8V, L29Q and A31S elevate the affinity for both Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ . Further, L48Q, Q50R and C84Y that are adjacent to the EF hand binding motif of site II have a more significant effect on affinity and the thermodynamics of the binding interaction. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first to explore the role of Mg 2+ in modifying the Ca 2+ affinity of cTnC mutations linked to HCM. Our results indicate a physiologically significant role for cellular Mg 2+ both at baseline and when elevated on modifying the Ca 2+ binding properties of cTnC and the subsequent conformational changes which precede cardiac contraction., (© 2022 Federation of European Biochemical Societies.)

Objectives: Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPSs) in those with major neurocognitive disorder (MNCD) include the responsive behaviors of agitation and aggression. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has shown some effectiveness based on retrospective studies and one open label prospective study. We hypothesized that ECT will reduce NPSs between baseline and after treatment in those with medication-refractory behaviors., Method/design: This Canadian prospective multicenter study included MNCD patients admitted to geriatric psychiatry units for the management of refractory NPSs. All treatment-refractory participants suffered from advanced MNCD. We conducted the Neuropsychiatric Inventory-Clinician version and the Pittsburgh Agitation Scale at baseline, and during and after the ECT course. A bitemporal or bifrontal ECT series based on dose titration to 1.5 to 2.5 times seizure threshold was administered., Results: Data were collected for 33 patients with a mean age of 73 and categorized with severe MNCD using the Functional Assessment Staging of Alzheimer's Disease scale (stages 6 and 7). The data showed a drop in mean Neuropsychiatric Inventory-Clinician version from 58.36 to 24.58 (P < 0.0001). Mean Neuropsychiatric Inventory agitation subscale dropped from 7.12 to 3.09 (P = 0.007). Mean Neuropsychiatric Inventory aggression subscale dropped from 6.94 to 0.97 (P < 0.0001). There was a concomitant significant decline in Pittsburgh Agitation Scale scores. No participants dropped out because of intolerance of ECT. One participant died from pneumonia, which did not appear related to ECT., Conclusions: In this naturalistic study, ECT was found to be a safe and effective treatment for certain NPSs in people with MNCD. This can translate into improving quality of life., Competing Interests: P.C. is a coowner of Brainstim (rTMS) Healthcare, advisory board for Janssen-Ortho. The remaining authors have no conflicts of interest or financial disclosures to report., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: We evaluated the prescribing practices of anticonvulsant (AC) adjuncts to benzodiazepines in managing Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome (AWS). We also examined the prescription of relapse prevention agents for Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD), and adverse events related to AWS treatment., Methods: Records were reviewed retrospectively pertaining to medically ill adults aged 60 and above with AWS and admitted to a medicine or hospitalist unit of a Canadian centre between June 2013 and June 2018. Duration and dosing of benzodiazepine, dosing and type of AC and AUD agent, and adverse events were collected. A multivariable regression model was employed., Results: 83 encounters were included in the study and 28 were prescribed an AC. The amount and duration of benzodiazepine administered were not statistically different between the benzodiazepine only and the AC adjunct groups, once severe AWS complications were accounted for. Five new prescriptions of traditional AUD agents were provided on discharge. No AC-associated adverse events occurred., Conclusions: AC adjuncts for AWS did not decrease the amount of benzodiazepine administered nor shorten the duration of treatment. Their routine use is not supported by our findings. Our study highlights a missed opportunity for AUD agents to be prescribed during hospitalization., Competing Interests: CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES We have read and understood the Canadian Geriatrics Journal’s policy on conflicts of interest disclosure and declare the following interests: Peter Chan is on the advisory board for Janssen-Ortho. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to declare., (© 2022 Author(s). Published by the Canadian Geriatrics Society.)

Cannabidiol (CBD) is the primary nonpsychotropic phytocannabinoid found in Cannabis sativa, which has been proposed to be therapeutic against many conditions, including muscle spasms. Among its putative targets are voltage-gated sodium channels (Navs), which have been implicated in many conditions. We investigated the effects of CBD on Nav1.4, the skeletal muscle Nav subtype. We explored direct effects, involving physical block of the Nav pore, as well as indirect effects, involving modulation of membrane elasticity that contributes to Nav inhibition. MD simulations revealed CBD's localization inside the membrane and effects on bilayer properties. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) confirmed these results, showing CBD localizing below membrane headgroups. To determine the functional implications of these findings, we used a gramicidin-based fluorescence assay to show that CBD alters membrane elasticity or thickness, which could alter Nav function through bilayer-mediated regulation. Site-directed mutagenesis in the vicinity of the Nav1.4 pore revealed that removing the local anesthetic binding site with F1586A reduces the block of INa by CBD. Altering the fenestrations in the bilayer-spanning domain with Nav1.4-WWWW blocked CBD access from the membrane into the Nav1.4 pore (as judged by MD). The stabilization of inactivation, however, persisted in WWWW, which we ascribe to CBD-induced changes in membrane elasticity. To investigate the potential therapeutic value of CBD against Nav1.4 channelopathies, we used a pathogenic Nav1.4 variant, P1158S, which causes myotonia and periodic paralysis. CBD reduces excitability in both wild-type and the P1158S variant. Our in vitro and in silico results suggest that CBD may have therapeutic value against Nav1.4 hyperexcitability., (© 2021 Ghovanloo et al.)

Cardiac muscle thin filaments are composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin that change conformation in response to Ca 2+ binding, triggering muscle contraction. Human cardiac troponin C (cTnC) is the Ca 2+ -sensing component of the thin filament. It contains structural sites (III/IV) that bind both Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ and a regulatory site (II) that has been thought to bind only Ca 2+ . Binding of Ca 2+ at this site initiates a series of conformational changes that culminate in force production. However, the mechanisms that underpin the regulation of binding at site II remain unclear. Here, we have quantified the interaction between site II and Ca 2+ /Mg 2+ through isothermal titration calorimetry and thermodynamic integration simulations. Direct and competitive binding titrations with WT N-terminal cTnC and full-length cTnC indicate that physiologically relevant concentrations of both Ca 2+ /Mg 2+ interacted with the same locus. Moreover, the D67A/D73A N-terminal cTnC construct in which two coordinating residues within site II were removed was found to have significantly reduced affinity for both cations. In addition, 1 mM Mg 2+ caused a 1.4-fold lower affinity for Ca 2+ . These experiments strongly suggest that cytosolic-free Mg 2+ occupies a significant population of the available site II. Interaction of Mg 2+ with site II of cTnC likely has important functional consequences for the heart both at baseline as well as in diseased states that decrease or increase the availability of Mg 2+ , such as secondary hyperparathyroidism or ischemia, respectively., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Human ether-à-go-go related gene (hERG) K + channels are important in cardiac repolarization, and their dysfunction causes prolongation of the ventricular action potential, long QT syndrome, and arrhythmia. As such, approaches to augment hERG channel function, such as activator compounds, have been of significant interest due to their marked therapeutic potential. Activator compounds that hinder channel inactivation abbreviate action potential duration (APD) but carry risk of overcorrection leading to short QT syndrome. Enhanced risk by overcorrection of the APD may be tempered by activator-induced increased refractoriness; however, investigation of the cumulative effect of hERG activator compounds on the balance of these effects in whole organ systems is lacking. Here, we have investigated the antiarrhythmic capability of a hERG activator, RPR260243, which primarily augments channel function by slowing deactivation kinetics in ex vivo zebrafish whole hearts. We show that RPR260243 abbreviates the ventricular APD, reduces triangulation, and steepens the slope of the electrical restitution curve. In addition, RPR260243 increases the post-repolarization refractory period. We provide evidence that this latter effect arises from RPR260243-induced enhancement of hERG channel-protective currents flowing early in the refractory period. Finally, the cumulative effect of RPR260243 on arrhythmogenicity in whole organ zebrafish hearts is demonstrated by the restoration of normal rhythm in hearts presenting dofetilide-induced arrhythmia. These findings in a whole organ model demonstrate the antiarrhythmic benefit of hERG activator compounds that modify both APD and refractoriness. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that targeted slowing of hERG channel deactivation and enhancement of protective currents may provide an effective antiarrhythmic approach. NEW & NOTEWORTHY hERG channel dysfunction causes long QT syndrome and arrhythmia. Activator compounds have been of significant interest due to their therapeutic potential. We used the whole organ zebrafish heart model to demonstrate the antiarrhythmic benefit of the hERG activator, RPR260243. The activator abbreviated APD and increased refractoriness, the combined effect of which rescued induced ventricular arrhythmia. Our findings show that the targeted slowing of hERG channel deactivation and enhancement of protective currents caused by the RPR260243 activator may provide an effective antiarrhythmic approach.

The zebrafish has proven to be an excellent organism for manipulation of its genome from a long history of transcript down-regulation using morpholino oligimers to more recent genome editing tools such as CRISPR-Cas9. Early forward and reverse genetic screens significantly benefited from the transparency of zebrafish embryos, allowing cardiac development as a function of genetics to be directly observed. However, gradual loss of transparency with subsequent maturation limited many of these approaches to the first several days post-fertilization. As many genes are developmentally regulated, the immature phenotype is not entirely indicative of that of the mature zebrafish. For accurate phenotyping, subsequent developmental stages including full maturation must also be considered. In adult zebrafish, cardiac function can now be studied in great detail due both to the size of the hearts as well as recent technological improvements. Because of their small size, zebrafish are particularly amenable to high frequency echocardiography for detailed functional recordings. Although relatively small, the hearts are easily excised and contractile parameters can be measured from whole hearts, heart slices, individual cardiomyocytes and even single myofibrils. Similarly, electrical activity can also be measured using a variety of techniques, including in vivo and ex vivo electrocardiograms, optical mapping and traditional microelectrode techniques. In this report, the major advantages and technical considerations of these physiological tools are discussed., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

There is significant interest in the potential utility of small-molecule activator compounds to mitigate cardiac arrhythmia caused by loss of function of hERG1a voltage-gated potassium channels. Zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) have been proposed as a cost-effective, high-throughput drug-screening model to identify compounds that cause hERG1a dysfunction. However, there are no reports on the effects of hERG1a activator compounds in zebrafish and consequently on the utility of the model to screen for potential gain-of-function therapeutics. Here, we examined the effects of hERG1a blocker and types 1 and 2 activator compounds on isolated zkcnh6a (zERG3) channels in the Xenopus oocyte expression system as well as action potentials recorded from ex vivo adult zebrafish whole hearts using optical mapping. Our functional data from isolated zkcnh6a channels show that under the conditions tested, these channels are blocked by hERG1a channel blockers (dofetilide and terfenadine), and activated by type 1 (RPR260243) and type 2 (NS1643, PD-118057) hERG1a activators with higher affinity than hKCNH2a channels (except NS1643), with differences accounted for by different biophysical properties in the two channels. In ex vivo zebrafish whole hearts, two of the three hERG1a activators examined caused abbreviation of the action potential duration (APD), whereas hERG1a blockers caused APD prolongation. These data represent, to our knowledge, the first pharmacological characterization of isolated zkcnh6a channels and the first assessment of hERG enhancing therapeutics in zebrafish. Our findings lead us to suggest that the zebrafish ex vivo whole heart model serves as a valuable tool in the screening of hKCNH2a blocker and activator compounds.

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) heart is a viable model of mammalian cardiovascular function due to similarities in heart rate, ultrastructure, and action potential morphology. Zebrafish are able to tolerate a wide range of naturally occurring temperatures through altering chronotropic and inotropic properties of the heart. Optical mapping of cannulated zebrafish hearts can be used to assess the effect of temperature on excitation-contraction (EC) coupling and to explore the mechanisms underlying voltage (V m ) and calcium (Ca 2+ ) transients. Applicability of zebrafish as a model of mammalian cardiac physiology should be understood in the context of numerous subtle differences in structure, ion channel expression, and Ca 2+ handling. In contrast to mammalian systems, Ca 2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) plays a relatively small role in activating the contractile apparatus in teleosts, which may contribute to differences in restitution. The contractile function of the zebrafish heart is closely tied to extracellular Ca 2+ which enters cardiomyocytes through L-type Ca 2+ channel (LTCC), T-type Ca 2+ channel (TTCC), and the sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX). Novel data found that despite large temperature effects on heart rate, V m , and Ca 2+ durations, the relationship between V m and Ca 2+ signals was only minimally altered in the face of acute temperature change. This suggests that zebrafish V m and Ca 2+ kinetics are largely rate-independent. In comparison to mammalian systems, zebrafish Ca 2+ cycling is inherently more dependent on transsarcolemmal Ca 2+ transport and less reliant on SR Ca 2+ release. However, the compensatory actions of various components of the Ca 2+ cycling machinery of the zebrafish cardiomyocytes, allow for maintenance of EC coupling over a wide range of environmental temperatures., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The ability of cardiomyocytes to recover from a proton load was examined in the hearts of exercise-trained and sedentary control rats in CO 2 /[Formula: see text]-free media. Acidosis was created by the NH 4 Cl prepulse technique, and intracellular pH (pH i ) was determined using fluorescence microscopy on carboxy-SNARF-1 AM-loaded isolated cardiomyocytes. CO 2 -independent pH i buffering capacity (β i ) was measured by incrementally reducing the extracellular NH 4 Cl concentration in steps of 50% from 20 to 1.25 mM. β i increased as pH i decreased in both exercise-trained and sedentary control groups. However, the magnitude of increase in β i as a function of pH i was found to be significantly ( P < 0.001) greater in the exercise-trained group compared with the sedentary control group. The rate of pH i recovery from an imposed proton load was found to not be different between the exercise-trained and control groups. The Na + /H + exchanger-dependent H + extrusion rate during the recovery from an imposed proton load, however, was found to be significantly greater in the exercise-trained group compared with the control group. By increasing β i and subsequently the Na + /H + exchanger-dependent H + extrusion rate, exercise training may provide cardiomyocytes with the ability to better handle an intracellular excess of H + generated during hypoxia/ischemic insults and may serve in a cardioprotective role. These data may be predictive of two positive outcomes: 1) increased exercise tolerance by the heart and 2) a protective mechanism that limits the degree of myocardial acidosis and subsequent damage that accompanies ischemia-reperfusion stress. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The enhanced ability to deal with acidosis conferred by exercise training is likely to improve exercise tolerance and outcomes in response to myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Cardiac troponin C (cTnC) is the regulatory protein that initiates cardiac contraction in response to Ca 2+ TnC binding Ca 2+ initiates a cascade of protein-protein interactions that begins with the opening of the N-terminal domain of cTnC, followed by cTnC binding the troponin I switch peptide (TnI SW ). We have evaluated, through isothermal titration calorimetry and molecular-dynamics simulation, the effect of several clinically relevant mutations (A8V, L29Q, A31S, L48Q, Q50R, and C84Y) on the Ca 2+ affinity, structural dynamics, and calculated interaction strengths between cTnC and each of Ca 2+ and TnI SW Surprisingly the Ca 2+ affinity measured by isothermal titration calorimetry was only significantly affected by half of these mutations including L48Q, which had a 10-fold higher affinity than WT, and the Q50R and C84Y mutants, each of which had affinities 3-fold higher than wild type. This suggests that Ca 2+ affinity of the N-terminal domain of cTnC in isolation is insufficient to explain the pathogenicity of these mutations. Molecular-dynamics simulation was used to evaluate the effects of these mutations on Ca 2+ binding, structural dynamics, and TnI interaction independently. Many of the mutations had a pronounced effect on the balance between the open and closed conformations of the TnC molecule, which provides an indirect mechanism for their pathogenic properties. Our data demonstrate that the structural dynamics of the cTnC molecule are key in determining myofilament Ca 2+ sensitivity. Our data further suggest that modulation of the structural dynamics is the underlying molecular mechanism for many disease mutations that are far from the regulatory Ca 2+ -binding site of cTnC., (© 2017 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

Zebrafish, as a model for teleost fish, have two paralogous troponin C (TnC) genes that are expressed in the heart differentially in response to temperature acclimation. Upon Ca(2+) binding, TnC changes conformation and exposes a hydrophobic patch that interacts with troponin I and initiates cardiac muscle contraction. Teleost-specific TnC paralogs have not yet been functionally characterized. In this study we have modeled the structures of the paralogs using molecular dynamics simulations at 18°C and 28°C and calculated the different Ca(2+)-binding properties between the teleost cardiac (cTnC or TnC1a) and slow-skeletal (ssTnC or TnC1b) paralogs through potential-of-mean-force calculations. These values are compared with thermodynamic binding properties obtained through isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The modeled structures of each of the paralogs are similar at each temperature, with the exception of helix C, which flanks the Ca(2+) binding site; this region is also home to paralog-specific sequence substitutions that we predict have an influence on protein function. The short timescale of the potential-of-mean-force calculation precludes the inclusion of the conformational change on the ΔG of Ca(2+) interaction, whereas the ITC analysis includes the Ca(2+) binding and conformational change of the TnC molecule. ITC analysis has revealed that ssTnC has higher Ca(2+) affinity than cTnC for Ca(2+) overall, whereas each of the paralogs has increased affinity at 28°C compared to 18°C. Microsecond-timescale simulations have calculated that the cTnC paralog transitions from the closed to the open state more readily than the ssTnC paralog, an unfavorable transition that would decrease the ITC-derived Ca(2+) affinity while simultaneously increasing the Ca(2+) sensitivity of the myofilament. We propose that the preferential expression of cTnC at lower temperatures increases myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity by this mechanism, despite the lower Ca(2+) affinity that we have measured by ITC., (Copyright © 2016 Biophysical Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an important organism as a model for understanding vertebrate cardiovascular development. However, little is known about adult ZF cardiac function and how contractile function changes to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. The goals of this study were to: 1) determine if high resolution echocardiography (HRE) in the presence of reduced cardiodepressant anesthetics could be used to accurately investigate the structural and functional properties of the ZF heart and 2) if the effect of ambient temperature changes both acutely and chronically could be determined non-invasively using HRE in vivo. Heart rate (HR) appears to be the critical factor in modifying cardiac output (CO) with ambient temperature fluctuation as it increases from 78 ± 5.9 bpm at 18°C to 162 ± 9.7 bpm at 28°C regardless of acclimation state (cold acclimated CA- 18°C; warm acclimated WA- 28°C). Stroke volume (SV) is highest when the ambient temperature matches the acclimation temperature, though this difference did not constitute a significant effect (CA 1.17 ± 0.15 μL at 18°C vs 1.06 ± 0.14 μl at 28°C; WA 1.10 ± 0.13 μL at 18°C vs 1.12 ± 0.12 μl at 28°C). The isovolumetric contraction time (IVCT) was significantly shorter in CA fish at 18°C. The CA group showed improved systolic function at 18°C in comparison to the WA group with significant increases in both ejection fraction and fractional shortening and decreases in IVCT. The decreased early peak (E) velocity and early peak velocity / atrial peak velocity (E/A) ratio in the CA group are likely associated with increased reliance on atrial contraction for ventricular filling.

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are widely used as vertebrate model in developmental genetics and functional genomics as well as in cardiac structure-function studies. The zebrafish heart has been increasingly used as a model of human cardiac function, in part, due to the similarities in heart rate and action potential duration and morphology with respect to humans. The teleostian zebrafish is in many ways a compelling model of human cardiac function due to the clarity afforded by its ease of genetic manipulation, the wealth of developmental biological information, and inherent suitability to a variety of experimental techniques. However, in addition to the numerous advantages of the zebrafish system are also caveats related to gene duplication (resulting in paralogs not present in human or other mammals) and fundamental differences in how zebrafish hearts function. In this review, we discuss the use of zebrafish as a cardiac function model through the use of techniques such as echocardiography, optical mapping, electrocardiography, molecular investigations of excitation-contraction coupling, and their physiological implications relative to that of the human heart. While some of these techniques (e.g., echocardiography) are particularly challenging in the zebrafish because of diminutive size of the heart (~1.5 mm in diameter) critical information can be derived from these approaches and are discussed in detail in this article.

The Ca(2+) binding properties of the FHC-associated cardiac troponin C (cTnC) mutation L29Q were examined in isolated cTnC, troponin complexes, reconstituted thin filament preparations, and skinned cardiomyocytes. While higher Ca(2+) binding affinity was apparent for the L29Q mutant in isolated cTnC, this phenomenon was not observed in the cTn complex. At the level of the thin filament in the presence of phosphomimetic TnI, L29Q cTnC further reduced the Ca(2+) affinity by 27% in the steady-state measurement and increased the Ca(2+) dissociation rate by 20% in the kinetic studies. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that L29Q destabilizes the conformation of cNTnC in the presence of phosphomimetic cTnI and potentially modulates the Ca(2+) sensitivity due to the changes of the opening/closing equilibrium of cNTnC. In the skinned cardiomyocyte preparation, L29Q cTnC increased Ca(2+) sensitivity in a highly sarcomere length (SL)-dependent manner. The well-established reduction of Ca(2+) sensitivity by phosphomimetic cTnI was diminished by 68% in the presence of the mutation and it also depressed the SL-dependent increase in myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity. This might result from its modified interaction with cTnI which altered the feedback effects of cross-bridges on the L29Q cTnC-cTnI-Tm complex. This study demonstrates that the L29Q mutation alters the contractility and the functional effects of the phosphomimetic cTnI in both thin filament and single skinned cardiomyocytes and importantly that this effect is highly sarcomere length dependent.