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The US-led invasion in 2003 created opportunities for Iraq to establish American-style universities. Drawing on policy borrowing and educational transfer theory and using interviews as the primary method of data collection, this study examines how the American-style universities are rationalized and appropriated by various actors at national, sectoral, and institutional levels. The analysis shows that the rationales for establishing American-style universities in post-2003 Iraq differ by how each was funded and politically and financially supported. The new American-style universities in Iraq in this study represented something for both the USA and for Iraq. For the USA, they are a source of public diplomacy and soft power, and for Iraq, an instrument that promises peacebuilding, social cohesion, transition to democracy, reforming the local higher education system, legitimacy, and probably a tool to 'revolutionize' Iraq's higher education and bring back its glory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise of explainable natural language processing spurred a bulk of work on datasets augmented with human explanations, as well as technical approaches to leverage them. Notably, generative large language models offer new possibilities, as they can output a prediction as well as an explanation in natural language. This work investigates the capabilities of fine-tuned text-to-text transfer Transformer (T5) models for commonsense reasoning and explanation generation. Our experiments suggest that while self-rationalizing models achieve interesting results, a significant gap remains: classifiers consistently outperformed self-rationalizing models, and a substantial fraction of model-generated explanations are not valid. Furthermore, training with expressive free-text explanations substantially altered the inner representation of the model, suggesting that they supplied additional information and may bridge the knowledge gap. Our code is publicly available, and the experiments were run on open-access datasets, hence allowing full reproducibility.

The rise of explainable natural language processing spurred a bulk of work on datasets augmented with human explanations, as well as technical approaches to leverage them. Notably, generative large language models offer new possibilities, as they can output a prediction as well as an explanation in natural language. This work investigates the capabilities of fine-tuned text-to-text transfer Transformer (T5) models for commonsense reasoning and explanation generation. Our experiments suggest that while self-rationalizing models achieve interesting results, a significant gap remains: classifiers consistently outperformed self-rationalizing models, and a substantial fraction of model-generated explanations are not valid. Furthermore, training with expressive free-text explanations substantially altered the inner representation of the model, suggesting that they supplied additional information and may bridge the knowledge gap. Our code is publicly available, and the experiments were run on open-access datasets, hence allowing full reproducibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Systematic integration of quantitative and qualitative research is a known challenge when conducting mixed methods research (MMR) and joint displays are one method to make the integration process more concrete. A systematic review of the published literature on joint displays and MMR rationales was conducted in order to juxtapose joint display typologies with corresponding MMR rationales. Data from the mixed methods research systemic methodological review (MMR-SMR) were summarized using descriptive statistics, and a codebook was used to look for patterns and to develop themes that were integrated with descriptive codes. There were 71 joint displays across 27 studies that met the inclusion criteria. The MMR-SMR provides a comprehensive, updated examination of joint displays in the methodological literature and includes several contributions to the field of mixed methods research. One finding suggests that joint displays have evolved beyond their original typologies and an updated typology is provided. The current MMR-SMR identified a novel data transformation joint display that presented the conversion of qualitative data into quantitative data in a tabular format. It is unique that combinations of joint displays are being used (e.g., a side-by-side joint display that incorporates a theoretical lens or a path diagram) and that multiple joint displays are being used in individual studies. Researchers are recommended to strongly consider using joint displays as a method of integration because it can provide a structure to think about integration and to report the results of integration, which can further enhance transparency of the mixed methods research integration process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in deep learning have improved the performance of many Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks such as translation, question-answering, and text classification. However, this improvement comes at the expense of model explainability. Black-box models make it difficult to understand the internals of a system and the process it takes to arrive at an output. Numerical (LIME, Shapley) and visualization (saliency heatmap) explainability techniques are helpful; however, they are insufficient because they require specialized knowledge. These factors led rationalization to emerge as a more accessible explainable technique in NLP. Rationalization justifies a model's output by providing a natural language explanation (rationale). Recent improvements in natural language generation have made rationalization an attractive technique because it is intuitive, human-comprehensible, and accessible to non-technical users. Since rationalization is a relatively new field, it is disorganized. As the first survey, rationalization literature in NLP from 2007 to 2022 is analyzed. This survey presents available methods, explainable evaluations, code, and datasets used across various NLP tasks that use rationalization. Further, a new subfield in Explainable AI (XAI), namely, Rational AI (RAI), is introduced to advance the current state of rationalization. A discussion on observed insights, challenges, and future directions is provided to point to promising research opportunities.

Efforts to achieve coordinated, effective, and impactful adaptation outcomes are complicated by factors ranging from the local specificity of adaptation needs to the challenges of politics and prioritization that drive funding decisions. However, these and other challenges are perpetuated and exacerbated by poorly constructed, often implicit, and generally institution- or context-specific impact pathways connecting policy/institutional priorities through their materialization in specific actions to their intended outcomes. We call these impact pathways adaptation rationales, as they represent the logic of an adaptation action. The implicit nature of most current adaptation rationales makes it difficult to identify and test the accuracy and veracity of claims and assumptions underlying everything from policy priorities to intervention selection. In this article, we address this foundational challenge for the adaptation community of practice by proposing a typology of adaptation benefits (reduced exposure, reduced sensitivity, and increased adaptive capacity) that facilitates the construction of meaningful, transparent adaptation rationales. We lay out what these well-understood components of vulnerability mean in the context of adaptation benefits and provide guiding questions for their use in constructing adaptation rationales. Using hypothetical and real-world examples of projects and portfolios, we illustrate how this typology and the adaptation rationales it enables focus attention on the goals of a given action, its likely effectiveness, and for whom it is likely to be effective. Each of these issues offers an opportunity to strengthen project design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation, while also facilitating portfolio-level understandings of adaptation approaches, assumptions, and efficacy. This typology does not, by itself, presume to resolve the many debates in adaptation practice, such as the tension between incremental and transformational goals, the tradeoffs between actions addressing exposure via infrastructure versus those aimed at the underlying structures of inequality that render some populations more vulnerable to these impacts than others. However, by bringing issues of governance and justice the forefront of adaptation conversations, the typology, and the adaptation rationales it enables, allows for the productive, situationally-appropriate negotiation of these debates to improve the outcomes of adaptation policy and action.

This article analyses changes in the Finnish innovation policy from the early 2000s to 2016. The contribution is twofold. First, we propose a framework to understand and characterise changes in and different approaches to innovation policy implementation. The framework highlights the evolutive nature of innovation policies and sheds light on often very conflicting trade-offs and tensions within and between various approaches to innovation policy. Second, drawing upon the Finnish case, we elaborate the complexity of contemporary innovation policy implementation and show how the focus has changed since the early 2000s. Based on these findings, we discuss emerging ideas framing the "new innovation policy" and implications to policy-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reflexive and deliberative knowledge co-production processes are increasingly used in dealing with contemporary sustainability challenges. These processes come with the need to develop ways to properly assess and understand their impact. In our case study, a three-year-long knowledge co-production process aimed at evaluating the Dutch nature policy, we observed that the actors involved valued and understood the impact of the process differently. Actors' understandings of impact were also affected by political developments in the context surrounding the co-production process. Our empirical analysis focused on three dimensions of impact assessment (function of knowledge co-production, perceived pathway to impact, and problem identification) and identified four coexisting 'rationales' that actors used in their valuations of impact: accountability, instrumental, network and transformativ e rationales. Although the rationales appear incompatible, each emphasizing different ideas on how impact is achieved, in practice, individual actors drew on multiple rationales simultaneously in their assessment of the co-production process' impact. Specific national and provincial political dynamics, related to goal achievement of the nature policy, influenced how actors used the rationales. Actors increased the use of the accountability and transformative rationales as policy deadlines drew near. Our findings have implications for designing knowledge co-production processes. The coexistence of impact rationales complicates a responsive approach to process design that aims to consider the knowledge demands of diverse actors. Nevertheless, we argue that combining impact rationales is desirable, given the nature of and reasons for knowledge co-production, and provide recommendations for dealing with their coexistence in practice. • Perceptions of what counts as impact differ among actors in knowledge co-production. • We identify four 'impact rationales' actors use in judging knowledge co-production. • These include accountability, instrumental, network and transformative rationales. • Impact rationales determine actors' assessment of knowledge co-production. • Political dynamics increase appeal of accountability and transformative rationales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study empirically tests whether people invoke moral and prudential rationales when evaluating behavior in a novel context—the early months of the Covid-19 pandemic in the United States—and whether those rationales are associated with their support for a norm. We use data from two online vignette experiments that describe key health behaviors—staying home and masking—and find substantial support. Given the politicization of these behaviors in the U.S. context, we also explore the role of political orientation and find that liberal participants react more strongly to the behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The systematic design and analysis of tasks which can be implemented in first-year university courses and point to advanced inner- and extra-mathematically rich issues and their rationales is an open problem in the didactics of mathematics in higher education. Potentials of such tasks can be seen with regard to learning processes in the first year of study, which are less compartmentalized and allow for an extended acquisition of rationales of advanced mathematical practices and concepts. Against this background, subject-specific potentials of advanced mathematics are examined in this contribution. The Anthropological Theory of the Didactic (ATD) serves as the theoretical framework and in the analyses notions from its 4T-model are applied. Structural observations in praxeological terms are illustrated by examples chosen from a presentation of a classical result in Nonlinear Approximation. At the specific focus of the praxeological analyses are aspects for bridging and extending concepts within and across Analysis. On this basis, tasks designed for first-year university Analysis courses are analysed in detail. Moreover, general characteristics of the methodological approach realized in this contribution are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing on the "Double First-class" universities in China, we analyze the recruitment policies of international undergraduate students at the institutional level. Findings indicate that "double First-class" universities have a certain autonomy in determining the recruitment scale and academic thresholds, demonstrating an unevenly set and loosely regulated policy decision making in China with an absence of a national academic standard and coordinative system. We categorize institutional policies at "double First-Class" universities into four kinds: Active-rigorous Player, Active Player, Rigorous Player and Inactive Player. As Active-rigorous Players, the most prestigious universities set admission requirements as strict as that of some research universities in North America. In general, academic rationale and economic rationale are not as important as political and social-cultural rationales in the recruitment policy. China's HEIs need to maintain a subtle balance among academic, political, economic and social-cultural rationales, with more emphasis put on the quality control of international student recruitment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some unsustainable consumer behaviours have proved extremely hard to change or even challenge. Despite the fact that flying can be more damaging than any other activity that an individual can undertake, many otherwise green consumers still choose to fly, offering an opportunity to elicit narratives about the differences between their attitudes and behaviours. Qualitative interview data were gathered from self-selected green consumers and set within a cognitive dissonance analytical framework. Four strategies were uncovered: not changing travel behaviour (but offering justifications related to travel product, travel context or personal identity); reducing or restricting flights; changing other behaviours to compensate for flying; and stopping flying. This analysis furthers research on green consumer rationales for (un)sustainable behaviours and suggests several avenues for sustainable marketing management. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This survey of 335 practitioners builds on research which challenged the view that educational technologies are rarely used in early years settings. Previous research tends to focus on individual devices. This research looks at the range of devices being used and, instead of investigating how often they are used, considers how they support pedagogical practice. Findings support the view that early years practitioners are accessing a wider range of technologies and that these technologies are being used in more pedagogically appropriate ways than has previously been reported. Educational technologies appear to be increasingly embedded within early years education. Overall, attitudes towards educational technology are positive. Beliefs, however, are more likely to be linked to the social rationale, that children need access to technology because they are surrounded by it in everyday life, than the pedagogical rationale, that technology enhances learning. It may be necessary to review documentation to ensure that policy and practice focus more specifically on learning and teaching.

This paper reports on a case study of a student's rationales for learning mathematics. We operationalize Stieg Mellin-Olsen's educational concept of rationales for learning and apply the concept on data consisting of three semi-structured interviews with a student in the Swedish prison education program. Our analysis shows that the student's rationales vary in character over time as a reaction to his educational contexts. We conclude that Mellin-Olsen's construct of rationales is useful for understanding students' changing motivation in relation to the teaching and to the practice of mathematics the teaching entails. Teachers may use the concepts from our analysis as cognitive tools, related to students' rationales for learning. By identifying students' different rationales, opportunities arise for an individualized instructional design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When discussing mixed methods research from a methodological point of view, it must be acknowledged that they have been developed from rather simple research designs to complex and multilayered frameworks in which qualitative content analysis (QCA) is seemingly a key method for analyzing non-numeric data. This can be attributed to the versatile procedures and functions for which QCA can be used. Against this background, we describe and analyze the roles of QCA within different advanced mixed methods designs. First, we outline the implementation of QCA within a typical methodological framework, which consists of three hierarchical layers. Second, mixed methods research designs and the role of QCA in several design types are characterized. Third, three design types stemming from studies from educational sciences and sports science are presented. With these three elements, we demonstrate that QCA can be used in different roles ranging from dominance to subordination, thus implementing different rationales. Finally, we formulate some conclusions and suggestions for further research.

Along with the significant improvement of Chinese universities' visibility in the global higher education field, the Chinese government has been actively branding "Study in China" in recent years to market itself as a prevalent destination for international education. International enrolment has gained increasing importance and become a key component of the internationalisation discourse in China. Borrowing the theories of field and capital, this study aims to obtain a more nuanced understanding of China's position as a leading host country for international students. Using a multiple-case study design, this study investigates the motivations for selected flagship universities in China to campaign to recruit international students, and in what way these are nested with the national priorities, as well as the key recruitment strategies and technologies they have employed. The findings help reveal the distinctiveness of the Chinese model of international student recruitment. A shift in priorities is also noted as well as controversies and tensions in respect to the employment of various recruitment strategies. The lessons of leading universities in China offer insights both for researchers and policymakers in many countries to rethink their strategies to increase their nations and universities' presence in the global landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Latest developments in stakeholder management literature focus on dynamic stakeholder engagement and disengagement practices, and how these are facilitated towards reaching systemic outcomes. However, limited evidence support that this network-level approach can positively influence project success. The paper analyses this issue by considering the practices (how and when), rationales (why) and outcomes (so what) that evolve in the dynamic management of external stakeholders in dementia-friendly environments. This is a crucial area to explore as the ageing population and rising dementia prevalence has increased the need to engage external stakeholders, such as people living with dementia, to develop dementia-friendly health and social environments. The empirical study of the 2013/2014 Department of Health National Dementia Capital Investment Programme involved a statistical and qualitative analysis of 98 pilot projects' final lessons learnt reports. The analysis advances the dynamic process of timely engaging and disengaging external stakeholders in a context not previously explored in the literature related to dementia-friendly environments. Eight recurring practices and six rationales, the latter characterized by their temporal dimension, are presented in a processual model of stakeholder management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aimed at investigating the rationalities, Challenges and prospects of Africa Union institutional reforms agendas. The paper has been analysed by using the documentary source of data. The institutional reforms of the African Union (AU) have gained significant prominence in recent years within the framework of promoting regional integration and strengthening the African collective action. Africa has witnessed significant changes over the past two decades on several fronts, which has made reforming the AU more urgent than ever before. The main attention of the institutional reform is its focus on key priorities with continental scope, realign AU institutions to deliver against those priorities, manage the AU efficiently at both political and operational levels and finance the AU ourselves and sustainably. However, having these focus areas with prospects, challenges facing the institutional reform agenda are prevailed and needs homogenous intervention amongst member State for real implementation of the AU reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When discussing mixed methods research from a methodological point of view, it must be acknowledged that they have been developed from rather simple research designs to complex and multilayered frameworks in which qualitative content analysis (QCA) is seemingly a key method for analyzing non-numeric data. This can be attributed to the versatile procedures and functions for which QCA can be used. Against this background, we describe and analyze the roles of QCA within different advanced mixed methods designs. First, we outline the implementation of QCA within a typical methodological framework, which consists of three hierarchical layers. Second, mixed methods research designs and the role of QCA in several design types are characterized. Third, three design types stemming from studies from educational sciences and sports science are presented. With these three elements, we demonstrate that QCA can be used in different roles ranging from dominance to subordination, thus implementing different rationales. Finally, we formulate some conclusions and suggestions for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of demarketing, originally introduced by Kotler and Levy (1971), can be used in the context of places to describe specific activities aimed at deflecting interest, visitors, and/or investment to a particular place. This paper presents an exploratory investigation into the use of place demarketing in the UK. Thirteen in-depth interviews were conducted with place-marketing practitioners whose work was identified as incorporating elements of place-demarketing practice and activity. Four main rationales for demarketing places were identified: sustainability of the place product; market segmentation and targeting; reducing the effect of seasonality; and crisis prevention/management. The strategies identified in the place-demarketing process include: no marketing; redirection/marketing alternative places; informational place demarketing; restricting access; and pricing mechanisms. The paper concludes by drawing together some of the issues and implications that the demarketing of places raises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life cycle management (LCM) is frequently described as a holistic sustainability perspective along the product chain. It has mainly been a company internal practice. However, recent developments reveal a new type of LCM where companies collaborate in product‐chain‐specific initiatives. This raises questions concerning why corporations extend "corporate LCM" toward "product chain LCM". Here, we explore rationales and challenges for corporations engaging in one such coalition: The Sustainable Transport Initiative. The study covers five companies in different product chain positions and practitioners in different corporate functions. The results show a broad range of rationales for engaging in product chain LCM, related both to self‐interest and a shared interest in the product chain. The importance of the "business case," both for the individual companies and the product chain, is identified. The importance of sustainability managers as actors and as facilitators in discussions between managers from different corporate functions is also identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • We investigate the rationales for and strategies of internationalisation in Israel's only university located in the occupied West Bank. • Our analysis shows a discrepancy between the political rationales of administrators and academic rationales of researchers. • Building on these rationales, we uncover four distinctive strategies used to achieve internationalisation. • We develop important insights into the powerful impact of politics on our understanding of internationalisation in higher education. Abstract Internationalisation in higher education is often portrayed as a value-neutral intervention driven predominantly by economic motives yet advocated and prescribed for humanitarian purposes. In this study we investigate how internationalisation takes shape in an institution which is characterised by political controversy that hinders and shapes its internationalisation efforts; we explore the rationales for and enactment of internationalisation at Ariel University (AU), Israel's only university located in the West Bank, part of the occupied Palestinian territories (oPt). We challenge the dominant framing of internationalisation in higher education and shed light on the nature, purposes and forms of internationalisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This survey of 335 practitioners builds on research which challenged the view that educational technologies are rarely used in early years settings. Previous research tends to focus on individual devices. This research looks at the range of devices being used and, instead of investigating how often they are used, considers how they support pedagogical practice. Findings support the view that early years practitioners are accessing a wider range of technologies and that these technologies are being used in more pedagogically appropriate ways than has previously been reported. Educational technologies appear to be increasingly embedded within early years education. Overall, attitudes towards educational technology are positive. Beliefs, however, are more likely to be linked to the social rationale, that children need access to technology because they are surrounded by it in everyday life, than the pedagogical rationale, that technology enhances learning. It may be necessary to review documentation to ensure that policy and practice focus more specifically on learning and teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss public procurement instruments for acquiring innovation, focusing on the European Pre-commercial Procurement, Procurement of Innovative Solutions and Innovation Partnerships. We analyse, in particular, how firms’ innovation incentives are affected by: (i) economies of scope and externalities between R&D and large-scale production; (ii) the degree of specificity of the innovation; (iii) the presence of Small and Medium Enterprises in the market and the level of market competition; (iv) the risk of market foreclosure and supplier lock-in. Our study contributes to the literature on incentives in demand-side innovation policy by tapping into the contractual design features and by offering relevant implications for academics and policy-makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A highly significant element in politics and policies is the process of constructing, categorizing and imaging - such as categorizing citizens as target groups. In governing documents, distinctions are drawn to distinguish deserving and undeserving categories of citizens. This paper explores the construction of citizenship for people with dementia and the connection to underlying categories of rationales, by analyzing how this group has been categorized and imaged in policy documents. The study is based on a qualitative textual analysis of national policy documents in Sweden, covering nearly 40 years. It shows that the way people with dementia have been imaged has differed over time, where people living with dementia have been situated in various target groups and discourses. However, to a large extent, the underlying understanding has nevertheless remained persistent where the position of people with dementia has remained weak. It offers a taxonomy of categories of rationales and shows the interplay of rationales and target groups for certain social constructions. The study offers insights into the policy process related to policy change, and on citizenship as something transformative and interrelated that risks upholding democratic values that delimit disempowered groups, in this case people with dementia, to influence their citizenship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is scant research on Australian municipal tree managers’ motivations for street tree planting and the rationales for street tree species selections. Tree managers from 129 city councils across Australia were surveyed to address this knowledge gap. This paper presents the findings from 115 (89%) usable survey responses. Tree managers reported four primary motives for street tree planting: visual and aesthetic (97%), environmental (92%), socio-cultural and community (87%), and health (70%). In contrast, tree species characteristics (97%), management and maintenance issues (92%), visual and aesthetic benefits (89%), site environmental factors (80%) and problems caused by different species (70%) were reported to govern street tree species selection. In spite being the primary motives for planting, considerations for socio-cultural and community benefits (61%) and environmental benefits/ecosystem services (61%) had minor influence on street tree species selection. In absence of established research, Australian city councils’ institutional culture is biased by personal opinions on potential threats to city’s vital infrastructure posed by street tree, resulting in the mismatch between planting and species selection principles. Future research correlating species characteristics to specific ecosystem services/disservices might help Australian city councils to adopt an ecosystem services based approach to street tree planting and species selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in deep learning have improved the performance of many Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks such as translation, question-answering, and text classification. However, this improvement comes at the expense of model explainability. Black-box models make it difficult to understand the internals of a system and the process it takes to arrive at an output. Numerical (LIME, Shapley) and visualization (saliency heatmap) explainability techniques are helpful; however, they are insufficient because they require specialized knowledge. These factors led rationalization to emerge as a more accessible explainable technique in NLP. Rationalization justifies a model's output by providing a natural language explanation (rationale). Recent improvements in natural language generation have made rationalization an attractive technique because it is intuitive, human-comprehensible, and accessible to non-technical users. Since rationalization is a relatively new field, it is disorganized. As the first survey, rationalization literature in NLP from 2007 to 2022 is analyzed. This survey presents available methods, explainable evaluations, code, and datasets used across various NLP tasks that use rationalization. Further, a new subfield in Explainable AI (XAI), namely, Rational AI (RAI), is introduced to advance the current state of rationalization. A discussion on observed insights, challenges, and future directions is provided to point to promising research opportunities., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Gurrapu, Kulkarni, Huang, Lourentzou and Batarseh.)

This paper offers a review of the literature on rationales for terrorist violence and assesses their applicability to European homegrown jihadism. The use of terrorist violence is frequently assumed to be strategic, i.e., that it is a consciously chosen means to achieve certain (political) ends. However, the literature suggests that terrorist acts can also stem from organizational motives that are principally aimed at prolonging the existence and interests of the group itself. These two rationales are used as analytical lenses through which to study primary sources-based data on the Dutch “Hofstadgroup,” a case study that can inform our thinking about European homegrown jihadism more broadly. This analysis reveals that neither strategic nor organizational rationales alone can adequately explain the group's planned and perpetrated acts of violence. Instead, it finds that the most militant participants' rationales for terrorist violence were predominantly personal and furthermore, not necessarily or exclusively tied to their extremist religious convictions. The turn to violence in this group was predicated on a variety of factors at different levels of analysis, including a desire for revenge, the emulation of role models, and the wish to advocate and defend a newfound sense of identity as “true” Muslims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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