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Pastaraisiais metais įsitvirtinant dimensiniam asmenybės patologijos diagnostikos modeliui, pagrindiniu asmenybės sutrikimo kriterijumi tampa asmenybės funkcionavimo lygis, apibrėžiamas kaip savasties ir tarpasmeninių procesų funkcionavimas nuo adaptyvaus iki sutrikusio. Pripažįstant, kad ankstyva intervencija yra labai svarbi asmenybės sutrikimui, patikimi ir validūs diagnostikos metodai yra būtini asmenybės patologijos rizikos nustatymui paauglystėje. Pusiau struktūruotas interviu asmenybės funkcionavimo vertinimui (STiP-5.1) suaugusiųjų imtyse parodė geras psichometrines savybes, tačiau jis mažai tyrinėtas tarp paauglių. Šio tyrimo tikslas yra įvertinti STiP-5.1 lietuviškosios versijos psichometrines savybes paauglių, gaunančių psichikos sveikatos paslaugas, ir tipiškos (normatyvinės) raidos imtyse. Tyrime dalyvavo 178 paaugliai (11–18 metų; klinikinė (n = 104) ir tipiškos raidos (n = 74) grupės). Greta STiP-5.1 buvo taikomi savistata grindžiami metodai įvertinti asmenybės funkcionavimo lygį, ribinės asmenybės ir neadaptyvius asmenybės bruožus, taip pat psichopatologinių simptomų, tokių kaip internalūs ir eksternalūs sunkumai, lygį. Rezultatai atskleidžia vieno faktoriaus, t. y. viendimensę, STiP-5.1 struktūrą bendroje tiriamųjų imtyje. Nustatytas bendros STiP-5.1 skalės didelis vidinis patikimumas ir geras vertintojų tarpusavio suderintumas. Rezultatai atskleidžia stiprius ryšius tarp STiP-5.1 ir kitų asmenybės patologijos riziką matuojančių kintamųjų, o tai pagrindžia konstrukto validumą. Skalė patikimai diferencijuoja normatyvinės raidos ir klinikinės paauglių grupių asmenybės funkcionavimo lygį ir šis skirtumas pasižymi dideliu efekto dydžiu. Apibendrinant – rezultatai rodo, kad STiP-5.1 lietuviškosios versijos psichometrinės charakteristikos tinkamos, paremia jos taikymą paaugliams, patiriantiems psichikos sveikatos sunkumų.

The recent development of a dimensional view toward personality disorder opens up the field of personality research based on the constructs of personality functioning (Criterion A) and maladaptive personality traits (Criterion B) as core components of personality pathology. However, little is known about the roles of these aspects in relation to borderline personality features during adolescence. The current study aimed at exploring the associations of Criterion A and B and their contribution in predicting borderline personality features in adolescence. A sample of 568 adolescents aged 11–17 (M = 14.38, SD = 1.57; 42.4% males) from different backgrounds (community-based, psychiatric inpatients, and youth forensic care) completed a set of questionnaires among which were measures of personality functioning, maladaptive personality traits, and borderline personality features. The findings reveal that Criterion A and B are strongly interrelated and both are significant in predicting borderline personality features in adolescents. Further, the results showed the incremental value of Criterion A beyond the level of underlying psychopathology and maladaptive personality traits suggesting the distinctive function of Criterion A to capture the features of borderline personality. These findings extend the knowledge about the dimensional aspects of personality pathology in adolescence. The implications in relation to the new personality disorder model in the ICD-11 are highlighted.

Abstract Background The dimensional approach to personality pathology opens up the possibility to investigate adolescence as a significant period for the development of personality pathology. Recent evidence suggests that symptoms of personality pathology may change during adolescence, but the negative consequences such as impaired social functioning persist later on in life. Thus, we think that problems in social functioning may further predict personality impairments. The current study aimed at investigating the role of relationship quality with parents and peers for the prediction of the level of personality functioning across adolescence. We hypothesized that 1) relationship quality with both parents and peers will significantly account for the level of personality functioning in adolescence and 2) the importance of relationship quality with peers for the relation to impairments in personality functioning will increase with age. Methods A community sample consisting of 855 adolescents aged 11–18 (M = 14.44, SD = 1.60; 62.5% female) from different regions in Lithuania participated in this study. Self-report questionnaires included the Levels of Personality Functioning Questionnaire to investigate personality impairments and the Network of Relationships Questionnaire to assess the quality of dyadic relationships. Results Discord in the parent, but not peer relationships, was related to a more severe level of personality functioning across adolescence. Lower levels of closeness with parents accounted for higher impairments in personality functioning. The importance of closeness with peers for the explanation of the level of personality functioning increased with age. Conclusions During the sensitive period for the development of a personality disorder, relationship quality with the closest adults and peers both remain important for the explanation of impairments in personality functioning.

People in economically advantaged nations tend to evaluate their life as more positive overall and report greater well-being than people in less advantaged nations. But how does positivity manifest in the daily life experiences of individuals around the world? The present study asked 15,244 college students from 62 nations, in 42 languages, to describe a situation they experienced the previous day using the Riverside Situational Q-sort (RSQ). Using expert ratings, the overall positivity of each situation was calculated for both nations and individuals. The positivity of the average situation in each nation was strongly related to the economic development of the nation as measured by the Human Development Index (HDI). For individuals’ daily experiences, the economic status of their nation also predicted the positivity of their experience, even more than their family socioeconomic status. Further analyses revealed the specific characteristics of the average situations for higher HDI nations that make their experiences more positive. Higher HDI was associated with situational experiences involving humor, socializing with others, and the potential to express emotions and fantasies. Lower HDI was associated with an increase in the presence of threats, blame, and hostility, as well as situational experiences consisting of family, religion, and money. Despite the increase in a few negative situational characteristics in lower HDI countries, the overall average experience still ranged from neutral to slightly positive, rather than negative, suggesting that greater HDI may not necessarily increase positive experiences but rather decrease negative experiences. The results illustrate how national economic status influences the lives of individuals even within a single instance of daily life, with large and powerful consequences when accumulated across individuals within each nation.

Abstract Background Research on personality pathology in adolescence has accelerated during the last decade. Among all of the personality disorders, there is strong support for the validity of borderline personality disorder (BPD) diagnosis in adolescence with comparable stability as seen in adulthood. Researchers have put much effort in the analysis of the developmental pathways and etiology of the disorder and currently are relocating their attention to the identification of the possible risk factors associated with the course of BPD symptoms during adolescence. The risk profile provided in previous systematic reviews did not address the possible development and course of BPD features across time. Having this in mind, the purpose of this systematic review is to identify the factors that are associated with the course of BPD symptoms during adolescence. Methods Electronic databases were systematically searched for prospective longitudinal studies with at least two assessments of BPD as an outcome of the examined risk factors. A total number of 14 articles from the period of almost 40 years were identified as fitting the eligibility criteria. Conclusions Factors associated with the course of BPD symptoms include childhood temperament, comorbid psychopathology, and current interpersonal experiences. The current review adds up to the knowledge base about factors that are associated with the persistence or worsening of BPD symptoms in adolescence, describing the factors congruent to different developmental periods.

BackgroundExternalising behaviours are becoming a remarkably prevalent problem during adolescence, often precipitating both externalising and internalising disorders in later adulthood. Psychological treatments aim to increase the social functioning of adolescents in order for them to live a more balanced life and prevent these negative trajectories. However, little is known of the intervening variables and mediators involved in these treatments' change mechanisms. We conducted a systematic review, exploring the available evidence on mediators of psychological treatments for externalising behaviours and symptoms amongst adolescents (10 to 19 years old).MethodsA systematic search was performed on Medline and PsycINFO databases, which identified studies from inception to February 23, 2020. Eligible studies included randomised controlled trials that enrolled adolescents with externalising symptoms and behaviours as, at least, one of the primary outcomes. A group of 20 reviewers from the COST-Action TREATme (CA16102) were divided into 10 pairs. Each pair independently screened studies for inclusion, extracted information from the included studies, and assessed the methodological quality of the included studies and the requirements for mediators, following Kazdin's criteria. Risk of bias of RCTs was assessed by the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Extracted data from the included studies were reported using a narrative synthesis.ResultsFollowing the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines (PRISMA), after removing duplicates, 3,660 articles were screened. Disagreements were resolved by consensus. In a second stage, 965 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. A total of 14 studies fulfilled all inclusion criteria. The majority were related to systemic psychological treatment approaches. Two types of mediators were identified as potentially being involved in the mechanisms of change for better social improvements of adolescents: to increase healthier parent–adolescent relationships and parental discipline. However, there were significant and non-significant results amongst the same mediators, which led to discussing the results tentatively.ConclusionsFamily variables were found to be the largest group of investigated mediators, followed by relational, behavioural, and emotional variables. No cognitive or treatment-specific mediators were identified. Both adequate behavioural control of adolescents' peer behaviour and a better positive balance in their relationships with their parents seemed to buffer the effects of externalising behaviours in adolescents. Several methodological limitations concerning mediation testing design, outcome measures, and mediator selection have been identified.Ethics and DisseminationEthical approval was not required. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021231835.

Background: Personality disorders (PDs) are a severe health issue already prevalent among adolescents and young adults. Early detection and intervention offer the opportunity to reduce disease burden and chronicity of symptoms and to enhance long-term functional outcomes. While psychological treatments for PDs have been shown to be effective for young people, the mediators and specific change mechanisms of treatment are still unclear.Aim: As part of the “European Network of Individualized Psychotherapy Treatment of Young People with Mental Disorders” (TREATme), funded by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST), we will conduct a systematic review to summarize the existing knowledge on mediators of treatment outcome and theories of change in psychotherapy for young people with personality disorders. In particular, we will evaluate whether mediators appear to be common or specific to particular age groups, treatment models, or outcome domains (e.g., psychosocial functioning, life quality, and adverse treatment effects).Method: We will follow the reporting guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement recommendations. Electronic databases (PubMed and PsycINFO) have been systematically searched for prospective, longitudinal, and case–control designs of psychological treatment studies, which examine mediators published in English. Participants will be young people between 10 and 30years of age who suffer from subclinical personality symptoms or have a personality disorder diagnosis and receive an intervention that aims at preventing, ameliorating, and/or treating psychological problems.Results: The results will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and at conference presentations and will be shared with relevant stakeholder groups. The data set will be made available to other research groups following recommendations of the open science initiative. Databases with the systematic search will be made openly available following open science initiatives. The review has been registered in PROSPERO (evaluation is pending, registration number ID 248959).Implications: This review will deliver a comprehensive overview on the empirical basis to contribute to the further development of psychological treatments for young people with personality disorders.

IntroductionAnxiety and depressive disorders are a significant problem that starts in childhood or adolescence and should be addressed early to avoid chronic mental conditions. There is strong evidence to demonstrate that psychological treatments are effective for these disorders, however, little is known on mediators and mechanisms of change of psychological treatment in adolescents and young adults. Understanding the pathways through which psychological treatments operate will facilitate more effective treatments.AimWe aim to conduct a systematic review, exploring the available evidence on mediators of psychological treatments for anxiety and depression in adolescents and young adults.MethodsA systematic search has been performed on PubMed and PsycINFO databases to identify studies from inception to 23rd February 2020. Eligible studies include randomized controlled trials and trials (quasi-experimental) designs that have enrolled adolescents and young adults presenting with depression and/or anxiety and that have examined mediators of psychological treatments. A group of 20 reviewers from the COST-Action TREATme (CA16102) divided into 10 pairs independently screen studies for inclusion, extract information from the included studies, and assess the methodological quality of the included studies and the requirements for mediators. The methodological quality will be assessed by The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Extracted data from the included studies will be collected and presented using a narrative approach.DiscussionThis systematic review will summarize and provide a comprehensive overview of the current evidence on mediators of psychological treatments for anxiety and depression for adolescents and young adults. Results will allow the identification of strategies to optimize intervention to enhance clinical outcomes.Ethics and disseminationEthics approval is not required. Findings from this systematic review will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and disseminated at conferences and meetings. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021234641.

Introduction: The context of the current research involves relationships between traumatic or adverse childhood experiences, mental health variables and behavioural problems in delinquent adolescents. In the study we introduce the dimension of heterogeneity of antisocial behaviour to provide more insight into the role of internalising problems and borderline personality features as stemming from traumatic experiences and leading to aggression and rule-breaking behaviour in adolescents. Aim: Analysis of the mediating role of internalising problems and borderline personality features in the link between trauma experience and two forms of antisocial behaviour – aggression and rule-breaking behaviour. Methods: Eighty-eight adolescents (77.3% males, Mage = 14.69, SD = 1.51) assigned to the behaviour modification programme completed the Youth Self-Report (YSR 11/18), the Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ, adapted by Gervinskaite- Paulaitiene and Barkauskiene from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire and the Adverse Childhood Experiences Score Calculator), and the Borderline Personality Features Scale for Children-11 (BPFSC-11). Statistical analyses included two multiple mediation models with two parallel mediators. Results: The study revealed that the link between traumatic experiences and aggression was mediated by borderline personality features, while internalising symptoms mediated the association of adverse childhood experiences and rule-breaking behaviour. Conclusions: Understanding the mediating role of internalising problems and borderline personality features in the link between childhood trauma and aggression as well as rule-breaking behaviour adds important knowledge to the understanding of the way leading towards antisocial behaviour, and could be used in the development of specified intervention programmes.

Introduction Approximately 75% of mental disorders emerge before the age of 25 years but less than half receive appropriate treatment. Little is known about the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic change of adolescents in psychotherapy. The ‘European Network of Individualised Psychotherapy Treatment of Young People with Mental Disorders’, funded by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology, will conduct the first systematic review to summarise the existing knowledge on mediators and theories of change in psychotherapy for adolescents.Method A systematic review will be conducted, conforming to the reporting guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement recommendations. Electronic databases (PubMed and PsycINFO) have been systematically searched on 23 February 2020, for prospective, longitudinal and case-control designs which examine mediators of change. Participants will be adolescents between 10 and 19 years of age who suffer from a mental disorder or psychological difficulties and receive an intervention that aims at preventing, ameliorating and/or treating psychological problems.Ethics and dissemination Ethical approval is not required for this systematic review as no primary data will be collected. The results will be published in a peer-reviewed journals and at conference presentations and will be shared with stakeholder groups. The whole data set will be offered to other research groups following recommendations of the open science initiative. Databases with the systematic search will be made openly available following open science initiatives.PROSPERO registration number CRD42020177535.

The aim of this study was to assess the 12-week group version of the mentalization-based Lighthouse Parenting Program for child maltreatment prevention. Parents who might be facing mentalizing difficulties due to challenges in the parent–child relationship were invited to participate in the program. The aim of the program was to promote mentalizing—to encourage parents’ curiosity about their children’s minds and their willingness to reflect on their own feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Study participants were 101 parents (82 mothers, 19 fathers). Parenting practices and parental and family adjustment were assessed using the Parent and Family Adjustment Scale and mentalization was measured using Mentalization Scale at pre- and post-intervention assessments. Parents’ feedback on the program was gathered after the program. Results revealed that mentalization, parental adjustment, and family functioning improved while coercive parenting practices decreased after the intervention. Study results provide preliminary indications of the benefits of the 12-week Lighthouse Parenting Program for parents referred or self-referred for mental health services due to their own or their child’s difficulties.

Adolescents were a particularly vulnerable group at the time of the pandemic. Restrictions applied during quarantine brought a lot of stress and challenges for the youth. The aim of this study was to reveal how adolescents cope with challenges faced during the lockdown due to COVID-19. Twenty four 13–17-year-old adolescents participated in a qualitative study using semi-structured in-depth interviews via Zoom. Findings revealed seven themes related to youth coping behavior during lockdown: 1. withdrawal behavior, 2. focus on particular activities, 3. social support seeking within family and via the internet with friends, 4. expression of overwhelming emotions, 5. protest against quarantine restrictions, 6. attempts to maintain “active oneself”, 7. search for the personal meaning of the lockdown. Understanding the coping behaviors and helping adolescents reflect their mental states in stressful situations could be effective interventions in order to reduce the risk of future psychological problems.

The recent body of research reveals fundamental limitations to the categorical concept of a personality disorder that has led researchers to adopt a new personality disorder concept. During the last decade DSM-5 and ICD-11 diagnostic classifications have accepted the dimensional view towards personality pathology. Despite the differences between the two classifications, the joint aspect of both models is the construct of Levels of personality functioning. The construct of personality functioning involves personality (dys)function in the self and interpersonal domains. This two-step conceptualization includes (a) impairments of self and interpersonal functioning, indicating general signs and severity of personality disorder, and (b) pathological personality traits, reflecting ‘stylistic’ differences in the expression of personality disorder. The new conceptualization of personality disorder reflects the innovative multi-theoretical integration of known, empirically-based personality assessment paradigms. The relationship between personality functioning and interpersonal, psychodynamic, and personological paradigms provides the theoretical integrity and empirically-based structure necessary to understand the overall severity of personality pathology. Many methods (interviews, self-assessment scales, and questionnaires) have already been developed for the assessment of personality functioning, and their development will be encouraged by the ICD-11 classification established in 2022. At present, only one instrument has been developed in Lithuania for assessing the level of personality functioning in young people aged 12–18 (Barkauskienė & Skabeikytė, 2020). The empirical data about the validity of this construct and its capability to differentiate between the normal and impaired personality in adults and adolescents provide promising results, but are still accumulating. Research suggests that adolescence is a stage in development when personality pathology can fully unfold and be validly confirmed, which opens up opportunities for early intervention. Although the dimensional personality disorder model needs to further prove its importance, there is already evidence that it is less stigmatizing and returns psychology and personality into the concept of a personality disorder. This review presents changes in the conceptualization of personality disorders by discussing them from both clinical and developmental perspectives and highlighting the results of key research in recent years.

Paauglystė – tai laikotarpis, kai vyksta itin daug pokyčių, ypač svarbių socialiniam pažinimui. Tai nulemia vis geresnį paauglių savęs įsisąmoninimą (Harter, 2012). Todėl šiuo laikotarpiu labai svarbus tampa besivystantis mentalizacijos gebėjimas, užtikrinantis savo ir kitų elgesio supratimą psichikos būsenų kontekste (Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist, & Target, 2005). Nors neabejojama paauglystės laikotarpio svarba įtvirtinant mentalizacijos gebėjimą, vis dar stokojama nuoseklios mentalizacijos raidos paauglystėje analizės. Šiame straipsnyje* siekiama užpildyti esamą spragą ir, remiantis psichodinamine, raidos psichologijos, raidos psichopatologijos bei neuromokslo teorine ir empirine medžiaga, analizuoti mentalizacijos gebėjimo raidą paauglystėje, pagrindinį dėmesį skiriant paauglystėje svarbiausioms poliariškoms mentalizacijos konstrukto dimensijoms – emocinei ir kognityviai bei savęs ir kito mentalizacijai, taip pat mentalizacijos sutrikimo sąsajai su psichopatologija.

Mentalizacija yra elgesio supratimas susiejus su intencionaliomis psichikos būsenomis. Nors šis gebėji­mas literatūroje apibrėžiamas šiek tiek skirtingai, taip pat šiek tiek skirtingai aiškinama jo raida, pasta­ruoju metu vis didėja susidomėjimas tarpasmeniniais mentalizacijos raidos veiksniais. Fonagy, Steele, Steele, Moran ir Higgitt (1991), taip pat Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist ir Target (2004) siūlomas požiūris, kai vai­kų prieraišumas ir tėvų mentalizacija yra suprantami kaip itin reikšmingos vaikų mentalizacijos raidos prielaidos, yra plačiau aprašomas ir empiriškai tikrinamas ankstyvoje vaikystėje. Vidurinėje vaikystėje ir paauglystėje, vykstant reikšmingiems prieraišumo sistemos pokyčiams, prieraišumo ir tėvų mentaliza­cijos vaidmuo vaiko mentalizacijos raidai ir sklaidai nėra apibrėžtas. Šios apžvalgos tikslas yra atskleisti ir analizuoti svarbiausius empirinius atradimus, susijusius su mentalizacijos vaikystėje ir paauglystėje tyrimais ir taip išryškinti ir kritiškai įvertinti vaiko prieraišumo ir tėvų mentalizacijos, kaip pagrindinių teoriškai postuluojamų veiksnių, vaidmenį vaiko mentalizacijos raidai. Apžvelgti tyrimai rodo, kad gera tėvų mentalizacija yra svarbi saugiam prieraišumui ir psichikos teorijos įgijimui ankstyvoje raidoje, at­skleidžia motinų reflektyviosios funkcijos prieraišumo santykiuose svarbą organizuotoms vaiko prier­aišumo strategijoms. Be to, prasta motinų reflektyvioji funkcija siejasi su dezorganizuotu prieraišumu, o šis, skirtingų tyrimų duomenimis, yra susijęs su prastesniais mentalizacijos gebėjimais tiek ankstyvo­je, tiek vėlesnėje raidoje. Nors prieraišumo, saugumo ir mentalizacijos ryšys lieka svarbus ir vidurinėje vaikystėje, ir paauglystėje, tyrimai pateikia skirtingų duomenų apie strategijų reikšmę mentalizacijos naudojimui ir kartu rodo, kad ne tiek prieraišumo saugumas, kiek prieraišumo sistemos organizavimas apskritai yra sėkmingos mentalizacijos raidos sąlyga. Empiriniai duomenys rodo, kad motinų men­talizacija būna svarbi vaiko mentalizacijai ir vėlesnėje raidoje, kartu atskleisdami skirtingų motinos mentalizacijos gebėjimo dėmenų reikšmę vaiko ir paauglio mentalizacijos raiškai. Kita vertus, vis dar nepakanka empirinių duomenų, kurie leistų paaiškinti galimus aptariamų procesų sąveikos vėlesnėje raidoje mechanizmus. Apžvelgus esamus tyrimus galima teigti, kad Fonagy ir kolegų siūlomas požiūris gali būti iš dalies perkeltas ir į vėlesnę raidą: tiek tėvų mentalizacija, tiek vaiko prieraišumas yra svarbūs vaiko mentalizacijos veiksniai.

Straipsnyje analizuojama vaikų elgesio sunkumų ir asmenybės bruožų sąveika, siekiama nustatyti, ar specifinės asmenybės bruožų konsteliacijos būdingos dažniau nei tikėtina tam tikrai elgesio sunkumų raiškai. Tyrime* informaciją apie vaikų elgesio sunkumus – agresyvų elgesį, taisykles laužantį elgesį bei dėmesio trūkumo ir hiperaktyvumo sunkumus – pateikė 451 vaiko nuo 6 iki 11 metų tėvai, užpildydami 6–18 metų Vaiko elgesio lapą (CBCL 6–18; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001, cituojama pagal Žukauskienė ir Kajokienė, 2006) bei Hierarchinį vaiko asmenybės aprašą (HiPIC, Mervielde & De Fruyt, 1999). Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad stipriausiai su vaikų elgesio sunkumais susiję geranoriškumas bei sąmoningumas, silpniau – emocinis nestabilumas ir vaizduotė. Nustatyta, kad vaikams, turintiems elgesio sunkumų, dažniau nei tikėtina atsitiktinai būdingi išreikšto ekstravertiškumo ir vaizduotės bruožų derinys, taip pat pažeidžiamumą nurodantis asmenybės bruožų paternas – didelio ekstravertiškumo, mažo geranoriškumo ir sąmoningumo bruožų junginys.

Straipsnyje analizuojama mokymosi negalią turinčių paauglių savęs vertinimas, suvoktos socialinės paramos kiekis ir svarba, siekiama nustatyti, ar savęs vertinimo ir socialinės paramos sąveikos pobūdis šioje grupėje yra savitas, palyginti su vidutiniškai besimokančių bendraamžių grupe. Tyrime dalyvavo 188 paaugliai (tiriamoji grupė – 95 paaugliai, kuriems nustatyta mokymosi negalia, palyginamoji – 93 vidutiniškai besimokantys bendraamžiai) iš Vilniaus mokyklų šeštų–septintų klasių. Mokiniai pildė Vaikų savęs suvokimo skalę (Self Perception Profile for Children; Harter, 1985) bei Vaikų ir paauglių socialinės paramos skalę (Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale; Malecki et al., 2000). Mokymosi negalią turintys paaugliai blogiau save vertino visose matuotose savęs vertinimo srityse – akademinės kompetencijos, socialinio priėmimo, elgesio ir bendrojo savęs vertinimo – palyginti su neturinčiais mokymosi negalios bendraamžiais, tačiau gaunamos socialinės paramos kiekio ir svarbos vertinimai grupėse nesiskyrė. Grupės išsiskyrė savęs vertinimo ir socialinei paramai teikiamos svarbos sąsajų pobūdžiu: tiriamojoje grupėje nustatytos tiesinės sąsajos tarp tėvų, mokytojų, bendraklasių socialinei paramai teikiamos svarbos ir savęs vertinimo, o palyginamojoje grupėje tokių sąsajų neaptikta. Mokymosi negalią turintys paaugliai, kurie gaunamai socialinei paramai teikė mažai svarbos, statistiškai reikšmingai blogiau save vertino, palyginti su mokymosi negalių neturinčiais bendraamžiais, taip pat teikiančiais mažai svarbos gaunamai socialinei paramai. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: mokymosi negalia, socialinė parama, savęs vertinimas, paaugliai. Adolescents with learning disabilities: Self-evaluation and social support Monika Skerytė-Kazlauskienė, Rasa Barkauskienė Summary Although learning disability (LD) has a primary impact on academic achievement, its relation to problematic social and emotional life of children and adolescents has been well recognised. In addition, attention has been paid to self-evaluation of schoolchildren with LD; however, the results of studies are contradictory and can be attributed to various factors. This paper seeks to shed light on the association between self-evaluation and perceived social support in adolescents with LD. We used the multidimensional model of Susan Harter (1999) for understanding and measuring the global and domain-specific self-evaluations. The goals of the current study were to assess relations of self-evaluation to the perceived frequency and importance of social support received from various significant sources – parents, teachers, classmates and close friends in two groups of adolescents, those with LD and their classmates with average academic achievements. The participants were 188 Lithuanian-speaking adolescents from sixth-seventh grades of Vilnius schools, mean age 12.5 years (SD = 0.7). Ninety-five schoolchildren (64 boys and 31 girls) diagnosed as learning-disabled and 93 schoolchildren (58 boys and 35 girls) comprised an age- and sex-matched comparison group from the same schools with average academic achievements. The participants were assessed on Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985) and Child and Adolescent Social Support scales (Malecki et al., 2000). The results revealed that the LD group rated themselves worse than average-achieving students on all domain-specific self-evaluations scales: scholastic competence (t = –5.88, p < 0.001), social acceptance (t = –3.08, p < 0.01) , behavioural conduct competence (t = –2.36, p < 0.05) and global self-evaluation (t = –2.30, p < 0.05). Both groups equally perceived social support, its frequency and importance. There were significant associations between self-evaluations and the perception of social support in both groups. However, there were more significant relationships in the LD group, the perceived importance of social support being significantly related to various self-evaluations among adolescents with LD only (correlations for the LD group ranged from 0.24 to 0.40). The further ANCOVA analysis revealed that the self-evaluation of adolescents with LD, who perceived social support as unimportant, tended to be lower than the self-evaluations of adolescents without LD who disvalued the importance of social support. Key words: learning disability, social support, self-evaluation, adolescents.

Pastaruosius du dešimtmečius asmenybės psichologiniuose tyrimuose Penkių faktorių modelis (PFM), kitaip žinomas kaip „Penketas svarbiausiųjų“, tampa dominuojančia paradigma. NEO PI-R klausimynas (Costa and McCrae, 1992) yra skirtas būtent PFM empiriškai tyrinėti. Naudojant savistaba paremtus klausimynus būtina, kad tie patys teiginių rinkiniai būtų lygiaverčiai, t. y. skirtingose kultūrose turėtų tą pačią reikšmę. NEO PI-R, kaip ir bet kurio kito klausimyno, vertimas ir naudojimas kitose kultūrose priklauso nuo tos kalbos ir kultūros ypatumų, todėl toje šalyje, kur metodikos bus taikomos, būtina psichometrinių rodiklių analizė ir standartizacija. Šiame straipsnyje pateikiami kai kurie lietuviškosios NEO PI-R versijos psichometriniai rodikliai. Tyrime dalyvavo 317 vyrų ir moterų, kurių amžius nuo 19 iki 64 metų, savanoriškai sutikę užpildyti NEO PI-R klausimyną. Tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad vidinis didžiųjų dimensijų (neurotizmo, ekstraversijos, atvirumo patyrimui, sutariamumo bei sąmoningumo) suderinamumas pakankamai geras. Kai kurių asmenybės dimensijų žemesnio lygmens bruožus įvertinančių subskalių vidinis suderinamumas gana prastas, bet panašūs rezultatai gauti JAV, analizuojant amerikiečių normatyvinės imties tyrimų rezultatus. Be to, tikrinant PFM struktūros generalizacijos galimybes dar vienoje kultūroje, hipotetinė penkių faktorių struktūra gauta ir analizuojant lietuvių tiriamųjų rezultatus. Duomenų analizė rodo, kad 28 iš 30 subskalių turi didžiausią svorį iš anksto numatytame faktoriuje, o tai rodo gerą NEO PI-R lietuviškosios versijos struktūrinį validumą, taip pat pakankamą atitikimą teoriniam Penkių faktorių modeliui. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: asmenybės bruožai, Penkių faktorių modelis, NEO PI-R . PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE LITHUANIAN VERSION OF THE NEO PI-R Rita Žukauskienė, Rasa Barkauskienė Summary Personologists from many countries have consulted the natural language when developing personality taxonomies. Presently, the Big Five factor structure represents the most popular lexically derived personality taxonomy. The Five-Factor model consists of hierarchical trait organization and comprises five basic personality dimensions or factors. These factors are often termed the “Big Five” and represent the general consensus in differential psychology. The five factors are named Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscientiousness (C). The five-factor model developed by Costa and McCrae (1985) is operationalized in the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI R) (Costa, McCrae, 1992). The replicability and ubiquity of the Big Five have led many personality psychologists to advocate this structure as a basic framework for personality description and assessment. The generalizability across different cultures and languages is crucial for the evaluation of a personality taxonomy or structure. When using selfreports, it is critical for trait psychologists to ascertain whether the same sets of assertions are equivalent, i. e. whether they convey the same meanings across languages and cultures that are different from the one in which they were originally generated. Like any kind of assessment based on informants, NEO PI-R is susceptible to the influence of culture and language. This makes analysis of psychometric properties and standardization necessary for the culture in which they are going to be used. This study examined the psychometric properties of the Lithuanian version of the NEO PI-R in a sample of 317 adults (104 men and 213 women, age 19–64). With respect to reliability, although internal consistency and homogeneity estimates of five dimensions were all acceptable the results suggested rather high levels of internal consistency and homogeneity for most of the facet scales with few exceptions. The similarity of reliability with English studies gives to these dimensions and facets scales, the needed stability for future practical applications, as well as for research. Next, in this study we deal with the examination of construct or structural equivalence. To determine the structure of its underlying factor, the Lithuanian NEO PI-R scores of item-level (240 items) were subjected to the principal components analysis with varimax rotation. Factorial analysis identified the same five factors as in other countries. 28 from 30 facet scales (all, except Impulsivity (N5) and Activity (E4)) had chief loadings in the predicted factor. This confirms the generalizability and sufficient fit to the theoretical model. Third, our results with respect to mean scores revealed significant differences between the Lithuanian sample and the USA normative sample for Neuroticism, Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness domains. Overall, this study has provided evidence to support the conjecture that personality structure transcends cultural differences. The conclusions of this study are in line with these recent findings, and they support McCrae and Costa’s (1997) hypothesis that the FFM represents a universal personality structure. Key words: personality traits, Five Factor Model, NEO PI-R

Straipsnyje nagrinėjama veiksnių, susijusių su turinčių mokymosi negalę vaikų elgesio bei emociniais sunkumais, problema. Tyrimas buvo skirtas įvertinti vaikų, turinčių mokymosi negalę, elgesio bei emocinių problemų ypatumus, vaiko atitikimo motinos lūkesčius laipsnį, motinos jausmų, įsitraukimo į vaiko mokymosi veiklą pobūdį ir šių kintamųjų tarpusavio sąryšį. Eksperimentinę grupę sudarė turinčių mokymosi negalę, kontrolinę – vidutiniškai besimokančių vaikų šeimos. Tyrimo duomenys rodo, kad turintys mokymosi negalę vaikai pasižymi didesne nei jų bendraamžiai emocinio pobūdžio sunkumų rizika bei aukštesniu bendru elgesio ir emocinių problemų lygiu. Eksperimentinėje grupėje motinos ir vaiko tarpusavio santykiams būdingas prastesnis vaiko atitikimas motinos lūkesčius, stipresni motinų neigiami jausmai vaikui ir nepasitenkinimas savimi, didesnis įsitraukimo į vaiko mokymosi veiklą laipsnis, tačiau teigiami motinų jausmai vaikui tiriamųjų grupėse nesiskyrė. Didesni turinčių mokymosi negalę vaikų elgesio ir emociniai sunkumai susiję su mažesniu atitikimo motinos lūkesčius laipsniu, stipresniais jos neigiamais jausmais vaikui, didesne negatyvia namų darbų atlikimo kontrole bei retesniais motinos ir vaiko pokalbiais apie mokymąsi ir mokyklą. LINKING MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS, FEELINGS AND SUPPORT TO EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES Rasa Barkauskienė Summary Though psychological studies reveal that children with learning disabilities are at greater risk for behavioral and emotional disturbances than other children are little is known about factors related to behavioral and emotional difficulties in these children. It has been claimed that the psychological difficulties faced by children with learning problems are not necessarily simple linear correlates of their academic deficits, social information processing or organic dysfunctions. Recently a need to explore a role of family on behavioral – emotional problems in learning disabled children has been stressed. Maternal expectations and child’s goodness of fit within these expectations, mother’s involvement with child’s learning as well as mother’s disappointment and other emotional reactions toward a child have been hypothesized as contributing to the level of emotional and behavioral problems in children with learning disabilities. The aim of this study was to explore the interplay between behavioral and emotional problems and mother – child interactions, as measured by child’s goodness of fit level with maternal expectations, mother’s positive feelings, negative feelings toward child and feelings of dissatisfaction, involvement with child’s learning (support for homework, negative control of homework, encouragement of child, mother – child discussions about school and learning activities) in children with learning disabilities. The experimental group consisted of 102 children with learning disabilities. Subjects in the control group were average chieving children selected from the same classes that contained learning disabled children. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL 4/18; Achenbach, 1991) was used to collect data on children’s emotional and behavioral problems. Child’s goodness of fit within maternal expectations was assessed via Goodness of Fit Questionnaire (Feagans et al., 1991). Measures on mother’s feelings toward child and involvement with child’s learning were obtained via Scale of Parents’ Feelings toward child and Involvement with Child Learning Questionnaire, respectively. Comparative analysis of behavioral – emotional problems in the groups revealed that children with learning disabilities scored significantly higher on internalizing problems and total problems score but not on externalizing problems. As it was expected groups differed on mother – child interaction aspects: children with learning disabilities had lower goodness of fit level with maternal expectations, their mothers reported higher levels of negative feelings and more intensive dissatisfaction with themselves. In contrary, positive feelings did not differ between groups. Mothers of learning disabled children were more involved with their children learning: they provided more support, encouragement and negative control. Mother – child interactions variables had significant associations with problem behaviors in children with learning disabilities. Child’s level of goodness of fit with maternal expectations was significantly related to all CBCL 4/18 scores indicating that children with poorer fit had more behavioral – emotional problems. Mother’s negative feelings were the second consistent correlate of behavioral – emotional problems in both groups. As it was predicted, measures of mother’s involvement also correlated with problem behaviors in children with learning disabilities. Specifically, negative control was related to total problem scores on CBCL 4/18, and higher scores on mother – child discussions subscale were associated with lower scores on internalizing problems, externalizing problems and total problems.

Straipsnyje analizuojama motinų įsitraukimo į mokymosi negalę turinčių vaikų mokyklinę veiklą problema: laipsnis, pobūdis, veiksniai. Aptariami įvairūs požiūriai, nagrinėjantys įvairių šeimos veiksnių reikšmę motinų įsitraukimui į vaiko mokymąsi. Tyrimas buvo skirtas įvertinti mokymosi negalių turinčių vaikų motinų įsitraukimo į vaiko mokymąsi pobūdį, laipsnį ir sąveiką su šeimos ypatumais - šeimos statusu, motinos išsilavinimu, stresiniais šeimos gyvenimo įvykiais, motinos lūkesčiais ir jausmais vaikui. Eksperimentinę grupę sudarė 92-jų mokymosi negalių turinčių vaikų šeimos, kontrolinę - 90-ies vidutiniškai besimokančių vaikų šeimos. Tyrimo duomenys rodo, jog mokymosi negalių turinčių vaikų motinos, palyginti su vidutiniškai besimokan čių vaikų motinomis, labiau įsitraukia į vaiko mokymąsi, bet skiriasi įsitraukimo pobūdis: jos dažniau negatyviai kontroliuoja namų darbų atlikimą (p < 0,05), suteikia paramą ruošiant namų darbus (p < 0,001) ir paskatina vaiką (p < 0,05), tačiau reikšmingai nesiskyrė motinos pokalbių su vaiku dažnumas mokymosi negalių turinčių ir vidutiniškai besimokančių vaikų grupėse. Motinos teigiami jausmai vaikui ir aukštas vaiko atitikimas jos lūkesčius reikšmingai koreliavo su paskatinimu, pokalbiais su vaiku apie mokymąsi bei bendru įsitraukimo į vaiko mokymąsi indeksu, o neigiami motinos jausmai vaikui, nepasitenkinimas savimi kaip motina ir menkas vaiko atitikimas motinos lūkesčius - su negatyvia namų darbų atlikimo kontrole. Negatyvi namų darbų atlikimo kontrolė reikšmingai koreliavo ir su stresiniais šeimos gyvenimo įvykiais. MOTHERS' INVOLVEMENT IN THEIR LEARNING DISABLED CHILDREN SCHOOLING Rasa Barkauskienė Summary Problem: This study deals with mothers' involvement in their learning disabled children schooling defined as different mothers' activities: support for doing homework, negative control of homework, mother-child discussions about learning and school activities, child reinforcement for learning. Mothers' involvement in child's schooling is discussed in the light of family factors - mother's feelings and attitudes toward the child, child's "goodness of fit" to mother's expectations, mother's education level, family status and stressful life events - possibly related to particular forms of mothers' involvement. Sample: Experimental group consisted of 92 primary school children (8-11 years old) diagnosed as learning disabled and control group - 90 average achievers from the same classes as children from experimental group. Evaluation tools: Mothers' involvement with child?s learning was assessed via Mothers' Involvement in Child's Schooling Scale (constructed by author of article), mothers - feelings and attitudes toward the child - via Mothers - Feelings Scale (constructed by author of article), child's "goodness of fit" to mother's expectations - via technique recommended by Feagans and al. (1991). Data on family status, mother's education level and family stressful life events were gathered through family questionnaire made by author of article. Results: Results revealed that mothers of learning disabled children are more controlling as well as give more positive reinforcement and support for child's learning when compared to mothers of average achievers. Mothers of learning disabled children report higher degree of dissatisfaction with themselves as mothers as well as more negative feelings toward child. Mother's positive feelings toward child and child' high fit within mother's expectations positively correlated with child reinforcement, mother-child discussions about learning and school as well as with general level of mother's involvement in child's schooling. Negative control of homework was higher when child's fit within mother's expectations was low. Negative control had positive statistically significant correlation with mother's negative feelings toward child. Other family features such as stressful live events, family status is to be considered in the examination of mother's involvement with their learning disabled children schooling.