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The field of Parkinson’s disease research has been impeded by the absence of animal models that clearly phenocopy the features of this neurodegenerative condition. Mutations in FBXO7/PARK15 are associated with both sporadic Parkinson’s disease and a severe form of autosomal recessive early-onset Parkinsonism. Here we report that conditional deletion of Fbxo7 in the midbrain dopamine neurons results in an early reduction in striatal dopamine levels, together with a slow, progressive loss of midbrain dopamine neurons and onset of locomotor defects. Unexpectedly, a later compensatory response led to a near-full restoration of dopaminergic fibre innervation in the striatum, but nigral cell loss was irreversible. Mechanistically, there was increased expression in the dopamine neurons of FBXO7-interacting protein, RPL23, which is a sensor of ribosomal stress that inhibits MDM2, the negative regulator of p53. A corresponding activated p53 transcriptional signature biased towards pro-apoptotic genes was also observed. These data suggest the neuroprotective role of FBXO7 involves its suppression of the RPL23-MDM2-p53 axis that promotes cell death in dopaminergic midbrain neurons.

Fbxo7 is the substrate-recognition subunit of an SCF-type ubiquitin E3 ligase complex. It has physiologically important functions in regulating mitophagy, proteasome activity and the cell cycle in multiple cell types, like neurons, lymphocytes and erythrocytes. Here, we show that in addition to the previously known Parkinsonian and hematopoietic phenotypes, male mice with reduced Fbxo7 expression are sterile. In these males, despite successful meiosis, nuclear elongation and eviction of histones from chromatin, the developing spermatids are phagocytosed by Sertoli cells during late spermiogenesis, as the spermatids undergo cytoplasmic remodeling. Surprisingly, despite the loss of all germ cells, there was no evidence of the symplast formation and cell sloughing that is typically associated with spermatid death in other mouse sterility models, suggesting that novel cell death and/or cell disposal mechanisms may be engaged in Fbxo7 mutant males. Mutation of the Drosophila Fbxo7 ortholog, nutcracker (ntc) also leads to sterility with germ cell death during cytoplasmic remodeling, indicating that the requirement for Fbxo7 at this stage is conserved. The ntc phenotype was attributed to decreased levels of the proteasome regulator, DmPI31 and reduced proteasome activity. Consistent with the fly model, we observe a reduction in PI31 levels in mutant mice; however, there is no alteration in proteasome activity in whole mouse testes. Our results are consistent with findings that Fbxo7 regulates PI31 protein levels, and indicates that a defect at the late stages of spermiogenesis, possibly due to faulty spatial dynamics of proteasomes during cytoplasmic remodeling, may underlie the fertility phenotype in mice.

Compelling evidence indicates that two autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease genes, PINK1 (PARK6) and Parkin (PARK2), cooperate to mediate the autophagic clearance of damaged mitochondria (mitophagy). Mutations in the F-box domain-containing protein Fbxo7 (encoded by PARK15) also cause early-onset autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease, by an unknown mechanism. Here we show that Fbxo7 participates in mitochondrial maintenance through direct interaction with PINK1 and Parkin and acts in Parkin-mediated mitophagy. Cells with reduced Fbxo7 expression showed deficiencies in translocation of Parkin to mitochondria, ubiquitination of mitofusin 1 and mitophagy. In Drosophila, ectopic overexpression of Fbxo7 rescued loss of Parkin, supporting a functional relationship between the two proteins. Parkinson's disease-causing mutations in Fbxo7 interfered with this process, emphasizing the importance of mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis.

Fbxo7 is a clinically relevant F-box protein, associated with both cancer and Parkinson's disease (PD). Additionally, SNPs within FBXO7 are correlated with alterations in red blood cell parameters. Point mutations within FBXO7 map within specific functional domains, including near its F-box domain and its substrate recruiting domains, suggesting that deficiencies in SCFFbxo7/PARK15 ubiquitin ligase activity are mechanistically linked to early-onset PD. To date, relatively few substrates of the ligase have been identified. These include HURP (hepatoma up-regulated protein), whose ubiquitination results in proteasome-mediated degradation, and c-IAP1 (inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1), TNF receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), and NRAGE, which are not destabilized as a result of ubiquitination. None of these substrates have been linked directly to PD, nor has it been determined whether they would directly engage neuronal cell death pathways. To discover ubiquitinated substrates of SCFFbxo7 implicated more directly in PD aetiology, we conducted a high-throughput screen using protein arrays to identify new candidates. A total of 338 new targets were identified and from these we validated glycogen synthase kinase 3β (Gsk3β), which can phosphorylate α-synuclein, and translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20 (Tomm20), a mitochondrial translocase that, when ubiquitinated, promotes mitophagy, as SCFFbxo7 substrates both in vitro and in vivo. Ubiquitin chain restriction analyses revealed that Fbxo7 modified Gsk3β using K63 linkages. Our results indicate that Fbxo7 negatively regulates Gsk3β activity, rather than its levels or localization. In addition, Fbxo7 ubiquitinated Tomm20, and its levels correlated with Fbxo7 expression, indicating a stabilizing effect. None of the PD-associated mutations in Fbxo7 impaired Tomm20 ubiquitination. Our findings demonstrate that SCFFbxo7 has an impact directly on two proteins implicated in pathological processes leading to PD.

Reversible phase separation underpins the role of FUS in ribonucleoprotein granules and other membrane-free organelles and is, in part, driven by the intrinsically disordered low-complexity (LC) domain of FUS. Here, we report that cooperative cation-π interactions between tyrosines in the LC domain and arginines in structured C-terminal domains also contribute to phase separation. These interactions are modulated by post-translational arginine methylation, wherein arginine hypomethylation strongly promotes phase separation and gelation. Indeed, significant hypomethylation, which occurs in FUS-associated frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), induces FUS condensation into stable intermolecular β-sheet-rich hydrogels that disrupt RNP granule function and impair new protein synthesis in neuron terminals. We show that transportin acts as a physiological molecular chaperone of FUS in neuron terminals, reducing phase separation and gelation of methylated and hypomethylated FUS and rescuing protein synthesis. These results demonstrate how FUS condensation is physiologically regulated and how perturbations in these mechanisms can lead to disease.

G1 phase cell cycle proteins, such as cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (Cdk6) and its activating partners, the D-type cyclins, are important regulators of T-cell development and function. An F-box protein, called F-box only protein 7 (Fbxo7), acts as a cell cycle regulator by enhancing cyclin D-Cdk6 complex formation and stabilising levels of p27, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor. We generated a murine model of reduced Fbxo7 expression to test its physiological role in multiple tissues and found that these mice displayed a pronounced thymic hypoplasia. Further analysis revealed that Fbxo7 differentially affected proliferation and apoptosis of thymocytes at various stages of differentiation in the thymus and also mature T-cell function and proliferation in the periphery. Paradoxically, Fbxo7-deficient immature thymocytes failed to undergo expansion in the thymus due to a lack of Cdk6 activity, while mature T cells showed enhanced proliferative capacity upon T-cell receptor engagement due to reduced p27 levels. Our studies reveal differential cell cycle regulation by Fbxo7 at different stages in T-cell development.