Search

Quantum mechanics postulates that the hydrogen atom has a stable ground state from which it can be promoted to excited states by capture of electromagnetic radiation, with the energy of all possible states given by En = −13.598/n2 eV, in which n ≥ 1 is a positive integer. It has been previously proposed that the n = 1 state is not the true ground state, and that so-called hydrino states of lower energy can exist, which are characterized by fractional quantum numbers n = 1/p, in which 1 < p ≤ 137 is a limited integer. Electron transition to a hydrino state, H(1/p) is non-radiative and requires a quantized amount of energy, 2mE1 (m is an integer), to be transferred to a catalyst. Numerous putative hydrino-forming reactions have been previously explored and the products have been characterized by a range of analytical methods. Molecular hydrino has been predicted to be paramagnetic. Here, we give an account of an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) study of molecular hydrino H2(1/4) that was produced as gaseous inclusion in polymeric Ga(O)OH by a plasma reaction of atomic hydrogen with non-hydrogen bonded water as the catalyst. A sharp, complex, multi-line EPR spectrum is found, whose detailed properties prove to be consistent with predictions from hydrino theory. Molecular hydrino was also identified in gas chromatography as a compound faster than molecular hydrogen.

Aim Mobility issues in the early postoperative period result in poor functional outcomes and diminished quality of life for patients of advanced age. We determined the incidence of and risk factors for mobility issues in the early postoperative period in patients receiving open heart cardiac surgery. Methods A retrospective chart review was carried out on 396 patients receiving open heart coronary artery bypass grafts (CABG), valve replacements and combination CABG-valve replacements in a tertiary care hospital. Data on demographics, comorbidities, laboratory values, medications, anesthesia and postoperative care were abstracted. Mobility issues were considered present if they were documented in the medical chart. All pre- and intraoperative variables were entered into logistic regression. Results The mean age was 66.4 ± 11.9 years. In a subset of patients aged 75 years and older, the mean age was 79.8 ± 3.7 years. Mobility issues affected 36.9% of individuals from the total sample, and 47.6% of older patients. Increased age was a weak predictor in the total sample (OR 1.03), but was the only predictor in older adults (OR 1.1). The strongest predictors in the total sample were preoperative COPD (OR 2.7), congestive heart failure (CHF; OR 2.1), renal disease (OR 1.9), and pre-existing physical impairment (OR 1.8). Older patients with mobility issues were more likely to be discharged to acute care facilities, and had higher rates of mortality 3 years after surgery. Conclusions Over one-third of cardiac surgery patients experienced early postoperative mobility issues. Older patients and those with COPD, CHF, renal disease or pre-existing physical impairments might benefit from preoperative consultation with physical therapists. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2015; 15: 276–281.

SUMMARY Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H(1/p) called ‘hydrino atoms’ wherein n = 1/2,1/3,1/4,…,1/p (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of H to a stable hydrino state H[aH/p = m + 1] having a binding energy of p2 × 13.6 eV occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of m × 27.2 eV (m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H2O which has a potential energy of 81.6 eV (m = 3) to form an intermediate that decays with the emission of continuum bands with short wavelength cutoffs and energies of m2 × 13.6 eV. The predicted H(1/4) continuum radiation in the region 10 to 30 nm was observed first at BlackLight Power, Inc. (BLP) and reproduced at the Harvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA) wherein H2O catalyst was formed by a hydrogen reduction reaction at the anode of a hydrogen pinch plasma. By the same mechanism, the nascent H2O molecule formed by an oxidation reaction of OH− at a hydrogen anode is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H(1/4) with an energy release of 204 eV compared to the 1.48 eV required to produce H from electrolysis of H2O. CIHT cells, each comprising a Ni anode, NiO cathode, a LiOH–LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte, and MgO matrix exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. The cells were operated under intermittent H2O electrolysis to generate H at the anode and then discharged to form hydrinos wherein trace H2O vapor was supplied as entrained in an inert gas flow in otherwise closed cells. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input was measured using an Arbin BT 2000 (

Purpose: The objective of this review is to evaluate the literature on medications associated with delirium after cardiac surgery and potential prophylactic agents for preventing it. Source: Articles were searched in MEDLINE, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health, and EMBASE with the MeSH headings: delirium, cardiac surgical procedures, and risk factors, and the keywords: delirium, cardiac surgery, risk factors, and drugs. Principle inclusion criteria include having patient samples receiving cardiac procedures on cardiopulmonary bypass, and using DSM-IV-TR criteria or a standardized tool for the diagnosis of delirium. Principal Findings: Fifteen studies were reviewed. Two single drugs (intraoperative fentanyl and ketamine), and two classes of drugs (preoperative antipsychotics and postoperative inotropes) were identified in the literature as being independently associated with delirium after cardiac surgery. Another seven classes of drugs (preoperative antihypertensives, anticholinergics, antidepressants, benzodiazepines, opioids, and statins, and postoperative opioids) and three single drugs (intraoperative diazepam, and postoperative dexmedetomidine and rivastigmine) have mixed findings. One drug (risperidone) has been shown to prevent delirium when taken immediately upon awakening from cardiac surgery. None of these findings was replicated in the studies reviewed. Conclusion: These studies have shown that drugs taken perioperatively by cardiac surgery patients need to be considered in delirium risk management strategies. While medications with direct neurological actions are clearly important, this review has shown that specific cardiovascular drugs may also require attention. Future studies that are methodologically consistent are required to further validate these findings and improve their utility.

The data from a broad spectrum of investigational techniques strongly and consistently indicates that hydrogen can exist in lower-energy states than previously thought possible. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms” wherein n = ( 1 / 2 , 1 / 3 , 1 / 4 , … 1 / p ) (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Atomic lithium and molecular NaH served as catalysts since they meet the catalyst criterion—a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple m of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV (e.g. m = 3 for Li and m = 2 for NaH). Specific predictions based on closed-form equations for energy levels of the corresponding hydrino hydride ions H−(1/4) of novel alkali halido hydrino hydride compounds (MH*X; M = Li or Na, X = halide) and molecular hydrino H2(1/4) were tested using chemically generated catalysis reactants. First, Li catalyst was tested. Li and LiNH2 were used as a source of atomic lithium and hydrogen atoms. Using water-flow, batch calorimetry, the measured power from 1 g Li, 0.5 g LiNH2, 10 g LiBr, and 15 g Pd/Al2O3 was about 160 W with an energy balance of ΔH = −19.1 kJ. The observed energy balance was 4.4 times the maximum theoretical energy based on known chemistry. Next, Raney nickel (R-Ni) served as a dissociator when the power reaction mixture was used in chemical synthesis wherein LiBr acted as a getter of the catalysis product H(1/4) to form LiH*X as well as to trap H2(1/4) in the crystal. The ToF-SIMs showed LiH*X peaks. The 1H MAS NMR of LiH*Br and LiH*I showed a large distinct upfield resonance at about −2.5 ppm that matched H−(1/4) in a LiX matrix. An NMR peak at 1.13 ppm matched interstitial H2(1/4), and the rotation frequency of H2(1/4) of 42 times that of ordinary H2 was observed at 1989 cm−1 in the FTIR spectrum. The XPS spectrum recorded on the LiH*Br crystals showed peaks at about 9.5 eV and 12.3 eV that could not be assigned to any known elements based on the absence of any other primary element peaks, but matched the binding energy of H−(1/4) in two chemical environments. A further signature of the energetic process was the observation of the formation of a plasma called a resonant transfer- or rt-plasma at low temperatures (e.g. ≈103 K) and very low field strengths of about 1–2 V/cm when atomic Li was present with atomic hydrogen. Time-dependent line broadening of the H Balmer α line was observed corresponding to extraordinarily fast H(>40 eV). NaH uniquely achieves high kinetics since the catalyst reaction relies on the release of the intrinsic H, which concomitantly undergoes the transition to form H(1/3) that further reacts to form H(1/4). High-temperature differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed on ionic NaH under a helium atmosphere at an extremely slow temperature ramp rate (0.1 °C/min) to increase the amount of molecular NaH formation. A novel exothermic effect of −177 kJ/mole NaH was observed in the temperature range of 640 °C–825 °C. To achieve high power, R-Ni having a surface area of about 100 m2/g was surface-coated with NaOH and reacted with Na metal to form NaH. Using water-flow, batch calorimetry, the measured power from 15 g of R-Ni was about 0.5 kW with an energy balance of ΔH = −36 kJ compared to ΔH ≈ 0 kJ from the R-Ni starting material, R-NiAl alloy, when reacted with Na metal. The observed energy balance of the NaH reaction was −1.6 × 104 kJ/mole H2, over 66 times the −241.8 kJ/mole H2 enthalpy of combustion. With an increase in NaOH doping to 0.5 wt%, the Al of the R-Ni intermetallic served to replace Na metal as a reductant to generate the NaH catalyst. When heated to 60 °C, 15 g of the composite catalyst material required no additive to release 11.7 kJ of excess energy and develop a power of 0.25 kW. The energy scaled linearly and the power increased nonlinearly wherein the reaction of 1 kg 0.5 wt% NaoH-doped R-Ni liberated 753.1 kJ of energy to develop a power in excess of 50 kW. Solution NMR on product gases dissolved in DMF-d7 showed H2(1/4) at 1.2 ppm. The ToF-SIMs showed sodium hydrino hydride, NaHx, peaks. The 1H MAS NMR spectra of NaH*Br and NaH*Cl showed large distinct upfield resonance at −3.6 ppm and −4 ppm, respectively, that matched H−(1/4), and an NMR peak at 1.1 ppm matched H2(1/4). NaH*Cl from reaction of NaCl and the solid acid KHSO4 as the only source of hydrogen comprised two fractional hydrogen states. The H−(1/4) NMR peak was observed at −3.97 ppm, and the H−(1/3) peak was also present at −3.15 ppm. The corresponding H2(1/4) and H2(1/3) peaks were observed at 1.15 ppm and 1.7 ppm, respectively. 1H NMR of NaH*F dissolved in DMF-d7 showed isolated H2(1/4) and H−(1/4) at 1.2 ppm and –3.86 ppm, respectively, wherein the absence of any solid matrix effect or the possibility of alternative assignments confirmed the solid NMR assignments. The XPS spectrum recorded on NaH*Br showed the H−(1/4) peaks at about 9.5 eV and 12.3 eV that matched the results from LiH*Br and KH*I; whereas, sodium hydrino hydride showed two fractional hydrogen states additionally having the H−(1/3) XPS peak at 6 eV in the absence of a halide peak. The predicted rotational transitions having energies of 42 times those of ordinary H2 were also observed from H2(1/4) which was excited using a 12.5 keV electron beam.

Quantum mechanics (QM) and quantum electrodynamics (QED) are often touted as the most successful theories ever. In this paper, this claim is critically evaluated by a test of internal consistency for the ability to calculate the conjugate observables of the nature of the free electron, ionization energy, elastic electron scattering, and the excited states of the helium atom using the same solution for each of the separate experimental measurements. It is found that in some cases quantum gives good numbers, but the solutions are meaningless numbers since each has no relationship to providing an accurate physical model. Rather, the goal is to mathematically reproduce an experimental or prior theoretical number using adjustable parameters including arbitrary wave functions in computer algorithms with precision that is often much greater (e.g. 8 significant figures greater) than possible based on the propagation of errors in the measured fundamental constants implicit in the physical problem. Given the constraints of adherence to physical laws and internal consistency, an extensive literature search indicates that quantum mechanics has never solved a single physical problem correctly including the hydrogen atom and the next member of the periodic chart, the helium atom. Rather than using postulated unverifiable theories that treat atomic particles as if they were not real, physical laws are now applied to the same problem. In an attempt to provide some physical insight into atomic problems and starting with the same essential physics as Bohr of − e moving in the Coulombic field of the proton and the wave equation as modified after Schrodinger, a classical approach is explored which yields a model which is remarkably accurate and provides insight into physics on the atomic level. The proverbial view deeply seated in the wave-particle duality notion that there is no large-scale physical counterpart to the nature of the electron is shown not to be correct. Physical laws and intuition may be restored when dealing with the wave equation and quantum atomic problems. Specifically, a theory of classical quantum mechanics (CQM) was derived from first principles as reported previously [1-7] that successfully applied physical laws to the solution of atomic problems that has its basis in a breakthrough in the understanding of the stability of the bound electron to radiation. Rather than using the postulated Schrodinger boundary condition: “ 0 Ψ→ as →∞ r ,” which leads to a purely mathematical model of the electron, the constraint is based on experimental observation. Using Maxwell’s equations, the classical wave equation is solved with the constraint that the bound 1 = n -state electron cannot radiate energy. Although it is well known that an accelerated point particle radiates, an extended distribution, modeled as a superposition of accelerating charges, does not have to radiate. A simple invariant physical model arises naturally wherein the predicted results are extremely straightforward and internally consistent requiring minimal math as in the case of the most famous equations of Newton, Maxwell, Einstein, de Broglie, and Planck on which the model is based. No new physics is needed; only the known physical laws based on direct observation are used. The accurate solution of the helium atom is confirmed by the agreement of predicted and observed conjugate parameters using the same unique physical model in all cases.

Selective H-atom line broadening was found to be present throughout the volume ( 14 cm ID × 38 cm length) of low pressure (0.03–0.4 Torr) H2O only RF plasmas generated in an RF capacitively coupled parallel-plate cell. An exhaustive study of the first four Balmer lines in water plasmas operated over a range of pressures and absorbed powers revealed significant trends. Of greatest interest was the finding that at low pressures (ca. 0.08 Torr ) a significant fraction (between 10% and 40%) of the atomic hydrogen was ‘hot’ with energies greater than 40 eV. The magnitude of the line broadening was found not only to be pressure dependent, but also to be a weak function of the energy absorbed by the system. The degree of broadening was virtually independent of the position studied within the RF capacitively coupled parallel-plate cell, similar to the finding for H2/He and H2/Ar plasmas in the same capacitively coupled cell, reported elsewhere. In contrast to the atomic hydrogen lines, no broadening was observed in oxygen species lines at low pressures. Also, in ‘control’ H2/Xe plasmas run in the same cell at similar pressures and adsorbed power, little broadening of either atomic hydrogen, Xe or any other lines was observed. The values of the line broadenings observed in the low pressure water plasmas, and the fact that they were observed throughout the volume, are consistent with predictions of the Mills model, CQM, of populating fractional quantum states in H-atoms via catalytic resonant transfer processes. In particular CQM predicts that O2 can act as a catalyst for the RT process, and spectroscopy shows the water plasma contain a significant O2 population. Standard physics models of preferential hydrogen line broadening, developed explicitly for hydrogen/argon mixtures, are clearly not consistent with any aspect of the behavior observed in the water plasma data reported here.

From the width of the emitted Balmer lines, it was found that capacitively coupled radio frequency (rf) water-vapor plasmas in static mode (no-flow condition) showed the presence of both slow and fast excited hydrogen atoms. The typical slow component was independent of time, and a new phenomenon, an extraordinary fast component (130–150 eV) that increases to a significant portion of the Balmer emission with time, was also observed. This is in contrast to the water-vapor plasmas in flow mode where no excessive broadening is observed under any condition. The mechanism of extraordinary broadening of the Balmer lines of hydrogen in capacitively coupled rf water-vapor plasma is studied over a wide parameter range. High-resolution optical emission spectroscopy, Langmuir probe measurements of plasma density and electron temperature, and rf current and voltage measurements are performed to characterize the plasma. A Collisional Model involving the acceleration of charged species due to high electric fields cannot explain the results since the electron density was low, the rf field was constant with time, and only the atomic hydrogen lines were broadened. Experimental results are rather consistent with the model of an energetic chemical reaction as the source of the excessive line broadening involving a resonant energy transfer between atomic hydrogen and oxygen where the rate increases with the duration of the discharge. In this regard, water-vapor plasma is used in this experiment as a source of H and O to explore this catalytic reaction.

The data from a broad spectrum of investigational techniques strongly and consistently indicate that hydrogen can exist in lower-energy states then previously thought possible. Novel emission lines with energies of q·13.6eV where q=1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,11q=1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,11 were previously observed by extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy recorded on microwave discharges of helium with 2% hydrogen [Mills RL, Ray P. Extreme ultraviolet spectroscopy of helium-hydrogen plasma. J Phys D 2003;36:1535–42]. These lines matched H(1/p)H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen wherein n=12,13,14,…,1p; (p⩽137p⩽137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n=integern=integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Evidence supports that these states are formed by a resonant nonradiative energy transfer to He+He+ acting as a catalyst. Ar+Ar+ and K also serve as catalysts since, like He+He+, they meet the catalyst criterion—a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. Two H(1/p)H(1/p) may react to form H2(1/p)H2(1/p) that have vibrational and rotational energies that are p2p2 times those of H2H2 comprising uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen. Rotational lines were observed in the 145–300 nm region from atmospheric pressure electron-beam excited argon–hydrogen plasmas. The unprecedented energy spacing of 4242 times that of hydrogen established the internuclear distance as 14 that of H2H2 and identified H2(14). The predicted products of alkali catalyst K are H-(14) which form a novel alkali halido hydride compound (MH*X) and H2(14) which may be trapped in the crystal. The 1H MAS NMR spectrum of novel compound KH*ClKH*Cl relative to external tetramethylsilane (TMS) showed a large distinct upfield resonance at -4.4ppm corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of -35.9ppm that matched the theoretical prediction of H-(1/p)H-(1/p) with p=4p=4. The predicted catalyst reactions, position of the upfield-shifted NMR peaks for H-(14), and spectroscopic data for H-(14) were found to be in agreement with the experimental observations as well as previously reported analysis of KH*ClKH*Cl containing this hydride ion. The predicted frequencies of ortho- and para-H2(14) were observed at 1943 and 2012cm-1 in the high resolution FTIR spectrum of KH*IKH*I having a -4.6ppm NMR peak assigned to H-(14). The 1943/2012cm-1-intensity ratio matched the characteristic ortho-to-para-peak-intensity ratio of 3:1, and the ortho–para splitting of 69cm-1 matched that predicted. KH*ClKH*Cl having H-(14) by NMR was incident to the 12.5 keV electron-beam which excited similar emission of interstitial H2(14) as observed in the argon–hydrogen plasma. H2(1/p)H2(1/p) gas was isolated by liquefaction of plasma gas at liquid nitrogen temperature and by decomposition of compounds (MH*X)(MH*X) found to contain the corresponding hydride ions H-(1/p)H-(1/p). The H2(1/p)H2(1/p) gas was dissolved in CDCl3CDCl3 and characterized by 1H NMR. Considering solvent effects, singlet peak upfields of H2H2 were observed with a predicted integer spacing of 0.64 ppm at 3.47, 3.02, 2.18, 1.25, 0.85, and 0.22 ppm which matched the consecutive series H2(12), H2(13), H2(14), H2(15), H2(16), and H2(17), respectively. Excess power was absolutely measured from the helium–hydrogen plasma. For an input of 41.9 W, the total plasma power of the helium–hydrogen plasma measured by water bath calorimetry was 62.1 W corresponding to 20.2 W of excess power in 3cm3 plasma volume. The excess power density and energy balance were high, 6.7W/cm3 and -5.4×104kJ/moleH2(280eV/Hatom), respectively. In addition to power applications, battery and propellant reactions are proposed that may be transformational, and observed excited vibration–rotational levels of H2(14) could be the basis of a UV laser that could significantly advance photolithography.

The claim that quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the most successful theory in history is critically evaluated. The Dirac equation was postulated in 1926 as a means to remedy the nonrelativistic nature of the Schrodinger equation to provide the missing fourth quantum number. The positive and negative square root terms provided an argument for the existence of negative energy states of the vacuum, virtual particles, and corresponding so-called QED computer algorithms for calculating unexpected observables such as the Lamb shift and the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron. Dirac’s original attempt to solve the bound electron physically with stability with respect to radiation according to Maxwell’s equations, with the further constraints that it be relativistically invariant and give rise to electron spin, is achievable using a classical approach. Starting with the same essential physics as Bohr, Schrodinger, and Dirac of e – moving in the Coulombic field of the proton and the wave equation as an equation of motion rather than energy after Schrodinger, advancements in the understanding of the stability of the bound electron to radiation are applied to solve for the exact nature of the electron. Rather than using the postulated Schrodinger boundary condition “ Ψ → 0 as r → ∞,” which leads to a purely mathematical model of the electron, the constraint is based on experimental observation. Using Maxwell’s equations, the classical wave equation is solved with the constraint that the bound (n = 1)-state electron cannot radiate energy. Although it is well known that an accelerated point particle radiates, an extended distribution modeled as a superposition of accelerating charges does not have to radiate. A simple invariant physical model arises naturally wherein the predicted results are extremely straightforward and internally consistent, requiring minimal mathematics, as in the case of the most famous equations of Newton, Maxwell, Lorentz, de Broglie, and Planck on which the model is based. No new physics is needed; only the known physical laws based on direct observation are used. Rather than invoking untestable “flights of fancy,” the results of QED, such as the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron, the Lamb shift, the fine structure and hyperfine structure of the hydrogen atom, and the hyperfine structure intervals of positronium and muonium, can be solved exactly from Maxwell’s equations to the limit possible based on experimental measurements, which confirms QED’s illegitimacy as representative of reality.