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Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) has caused ongoing disruptions to U.S. meat markets via demand and supply-side shocks. Abnormally high prices have been reported at retail outlets and meat packers have been accused of unfair business practices because of widening price spreads. Processing facilities have experienced COVID-19 outbreaks resulting in shutdowns. Using weekly data on wholesale and retail prices of beef, pork, and poultry, we characterize the time series behavior and dynamic linkages of U.S. meat prices before the COVID-19 pandemic. We model vertical price transmission using both linear and threshold autoregressive (AR) models and vector error correction (VEC) models. With the estimated models, we then compare price movements under COVID-19 to model predictions. All three meat markets are well-integrated and we observe unexpected, large price movements in April and May of 2020. Early COVID-19 related shocks appear to be transitory with prices returning to expected levels at a pace consistent with the speed of transmission prior to the pandemic. This well-functioning market process suggests a degree of resilience in U.S. meat supply chains. USDA-NIFAUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Published version This research was supported by USDA-NIFA Project: COVID-19 Rapid Response: Coronavirus Disease 2019, Price Transmission, and the Farm-Retail Price Spread in U.S. Livestock. The views expressed here are those of the authors and cannot be attributed to the Economic Research Service or the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

This poster represents a variety of projects funded, in part, by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Virginia Tech Institute for Creativity, Arts, and Technology, NIFA, USDA NIFA and other funding sources. Some of these researchers are affiliated with the Southwest Virginia Regional Node of the Commonwealth Cyber Initiative.

Our national data and infrastructure security issues affecting the "bioeconomy" are evolving rapidly. Simultaneously, the conversation about cyber security of the U.S. food and agricultural system (cyber biosecurity) is incomplete and disjointed. The food and agricultural production sectors influence over 20% of the nation's economy ($ 6.7T) and 15% of U.S. employment (43.3M jobs). The food and agricultural sectors are immensely diverse and they require advanced technologies and efficiencies that rely on computer technologies, big data, cloud-based data storage, and internet accessibility. There is a critical need to safeguard the cyber biosecurity of our bio economy, but currently protections are minimal and do not broadly exist across the food and agricultural system. Using the food safetymanagement Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point systemconcept as an introductory point of reference, we identify important features in broad food and agricultural production and food systems: dairy, food animals, row crops, fruits and vegetables, and environmental resources (water). This analysis explores the relevant concepts of cyber biosecurity from food production to the end product user (such as the consumer) and considers the integration of diverse transportation, supplier, and retailer networks. We describe common challenges and unique barriers across these systems and recommend solutions to advance the role of cyber biosecurity in the food and agricultural sectors. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, VA Published version The authors acknowledge the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, VA for financial support for publishing this manuscript. The authors gratefully acknowledge Michael J. Stamper, Data Visualization Designer and lecturer at the University Libraries, Data Services at Virginia Tech, for his contributions to the figures.

Alluvial occurrences of Os‐Ir‐Ru alloys are known from several localities in western Tasmania, and are spatially associated with Cambrian mafic‐ultramafic complexes. A compilation of analytical data from this and previous investigations indicates that the Tasmanian alloys are predominantly Ru‐poor, Pt‐poor iridosmine with minor osmiridium. These compositions are similar to Os‐Ir‐Ru alloys from placers that are associated with ophiolites, and contrast with the more Pt‐rich alloys known from Alaskan‐type complexes. Most of the alluvial alloys contain silicate inclusions, comprising Mg‐rich olivine (Fo89–93), Mg‐ and Al‐rich orthopyroxene (En84.8–98.2) and non‐stoichiometric, Al‐rich calcic pyroxene (endiopside and augite). The chemistry of the inclusions is consistent with a model in which the Os‐Ir‐Ru alloys crystallized within the lithospheric upper mantle. Osmium, Ir and to a lesser degree Ru, behaved compatibly during the crystallization of the parental magmas for the Heazlewood River complex. These ele...

This dissertation is composed of two manuscripts in Production Economics and two manuscripts in International Agricultural Development. The first two manuscripts focus on production economics, and both are an exploration of nitrogen use and its impact on continuous corn production and profitability in Colorado. The first manuscript titled "Switching Regression Stochastic Plateau Production Functions––A Comparison of Alternative Specifications" proposes an alternative approach for estimating crop yield response functions using a frequentist approach. The second manuscript titled "Profitability Effects of Different Tillage Systems in Continuous Corn Rotations" explores the interaction between different tillage systems and nitrogen fertilization in irrigated continuous corn production in northeastern Colorado. We find that strip tillage is better suited for continuous corn production under the agro-climatic conditions in northeastern Colorado. The third and fourth manuscripts focus on international agricultural development and analyze the role of factors that influence the agricultural development of small-holder farmers in Ecuador, namely, markets, food value chains, risk preferences, and risk perceptions. The third manuscript titled "Does the Use of Specialty Varieties and Post-Harvest Practices Benefit Farmers? Cocoa Value Chains in Ecuador" analyzes the impact of the use of specialty cocoa varieties on small-scale farmers' income. It finds that the use of specialty cocoa varieties has a low impact on small-scale cocoa producers' income, and that post-harvest practices may lead to substantial price responses irrespective of the type of cocoa grown. Finally, the fourth manuscript titled "Linking Risk Preferences and Risk Perceptions of Climate Change Using Prospect Theory" explores how farmers' risk preferences correlate with their perceptions of climate risk. It finds that farmers that behave in accordance to the assumptions of prospect theory are more likely to perceive greater risks from climate change, that is, they are more likely to perceive the risks associated with climate change as being more threatening at a personal level. Since risk perception is a necessary prerequisite for adaptation, the results presented in this manuscript, have important policy implications for process of adoption of new technologies aimed at mitigating effects of climate change. Doctor of Philosophy This dissertation focuses on Production Economics and International Agricultural Development. The first two manuscripts focus on production economics, and both are an exploration of nitrogen use and its impact on continuous corn production and profitability in Colorado. The first manuscript proposes an alternative approach for estimating crop yield response functions to a single input. The second manuscript explores the interaction between different tillage practices and nitrogen fertilization in irrigated continuous corn production. The third and fourth manuscripts focus on international agricultural development, and they analyze the role of different factors that influence the agricultural development of small-holder farmers in Ecuador. The third manuscript analyzes cocoa markets in Ecuador. It finds that the use of gourmet cocoa varieties has a low impact on small-scale cocoa producers' income, and that post-harvest practices may lead to substantial benefits. Finally, the fourth manuscript explores farmers' risk behavior. It finds that farmers that behave in accordance to the assumptions of prospect theory, are more likely to show a greater risk perception of climate change, that is, they are more likely to perceive the risks associated with climate change as being more threatening at a personal level. Since risk perception is a necessary prerequisite for adaptation, the results presented in this manuscript, have important policy implications for the adoption process of new technologies aimed at mitigating effects of climate change.

Tuta absoluta, a member of the moth family, causes devastating yield loss to tomato farmers around the world. Its recent migration into the tomato fields of Nepal puts tomato farmers at a high risk of yield loss. In response, chemical pesticide use by Nepali farmers is increasing. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices have been implemented in hopes of reducing the frequency of chemical pesticide use while controlling yield risks. This study examines the extent and determinants of Tuta absoluta IPM adoption and its effect on the frequency of pesticide use for Nepali tomato farmers. Primary data was collected from four-hundred and one households in four districts throughout Nepal. Two levels of IPM practices were assessed, simple and complex, based on the need for additional knowledge and tools. An instrumental variable probit analysis was used to analyze the determinants of IPM adoption. Household distance to nearest agricultural extension office was a significant factor decreasing the likelihood of the adoption of complex practices. Amount of land dedicated to tomato production, membership status of the primary decision maker, IPM training regarding Tuta absoluta practices and severity of Tuta absoluta were found to increase the likelihood of the adoption of complex practices. In order to analyze pesticide use, a simple linear regression was used. Primary decision maker's age, gender, and education level were significant determinates to decrease the amount of expenditures spent on chemical pesticides to control for Tuta absoluta. IPM adoption level, amount of land dedicated to tomato production and severity of Tuta absoluta damage were significant determinates to increase the amount of expenditures spent on chemical pesticides to control for Tuta absoluta. Master of Science Tuta absoluta, a member of the moth family, causes devastating yield loss to tomato farmers around the world. Its recent migration into the tomato fields of Nepal puts tomato farmers at a high risk of yield loss. In response, chemical pesticide use by Nepali farmers is increasing. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices have been implemented in hopes of reducing the frequency of chemical pesticide use while controlling yield risks. This study examines the extent and determinants of Tuta absoluta IPM adoption and its effect on the frequency of pesticide use for Nepali tomato farmers. Data was collected from four-hundred and one households in four districts throughout Nepal. Different economic tools were used to conduct the analyses. Results show the farther a household is to the near agricultural extension office, the less likely a household is to adopt complex practices. An increased amount of land dedicated to tomato production, the primary decision maker being a member of a marketing or community organization, the primary decision maker having attended IPM training regarding Tuta absoluta practices and the greater the severity of Tuta absoluta in the household tomato fields, the more likely a household is to adopt complex practices. Contrary to one of the goals of IPM practices, this study shows complex adopters use more chemical pesticides than simple adopters. Results this study shows a need for further education of the relationship between IPM practices and the use of chemical pesticides.

There are a variety of international issues that disrupt the global trade market, an important one being national policies on the regulation of genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. Many crops have been genetically modified for reasons from herbicide resistance to correcting dietary shortfalls. This study evaluates the United States' exports of corn and soybeans from 1998 to 2016 to identify unusual shocks in trade values. In particular, this study quantifies how the importers' policy stance on the GMO issue impacts bilateral trade values. I estimate a gravity model with both ordinary least squares (OLS) and Poisson pseudo maximum likelihood (PPML) estimations. Residual analysis is used to assess the difference between actual trade and the trade levels predicted by the models. The results suggest that anti-GMO policies reduce trade values by an average of 11%. The largest difference between predictions and actual trade values is seen in corn exports to the European Union. Between 1998 and 2016, this forgone trade in corn was valued at $52.7 billion, which is $2.77 billion per year on average. This value is similar to the annual average value of U.S. exports of corn to Japan in the same period, $2.46 billion. The results have important implications for the agricultural industry. For developing nations, adoption of GMO crops could increase productivity and help alleviate poverty. Ultimately, the decision to adopt is up to the consumer, so the factors of consumer knowledge and opinions of GMOs are not to be ignored. Master of Science There are a variety of international issues that disrupt the global trade market, an important one being national policies on the regulation of genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. This study evaluates the United States’ exports of corn and soybeans from 1998 to 2016 to identify unusual drops in trade values. In particular, this study quantifies how the importers’ policy stance on the GMO issue impacts bilateral trade values. I estimate a gravity model with various estimation methods. Residual analysis is used to assess the difference between actual trade and the trade levels predicted by the models. The results suggest that anti-GMO policies reduce trade values by an average of 11%. The largest difference between predictions and actual trade values is seen in corn exports to the European Union. Between 1998 and 2016, this forgone trade in corn was valued at $52.7 billion, which is $2.77 billion per year on average. This value is similar to the annual average value of U.S. exports of corn to Japan in the same period, $2.46 billion. The results have important implications for the agricultural industry. For developing nations, adoption of GMO crops could increase productivity and help alleviate poverty. Ultimately, the decision to adopt is up to the consumer, so the factors of consumer knowledge and opinions of GMOs are not to be ignored.

Exchange Traded Funds are growing in popularity and volume, however academic literature related to their performance is limited. This study analyzes how well the CORN, WEAT, SOYB, USO, and UGA commodity ETFs track their respective futures assets during the period of January 2012 to October 2017. Tracking error in this study is evaluated through 4 approaches to measure error, bias, systematic risk, and error magnitude. Additionally, a mispricing analysis is conducted as an alternative form of error measurement Results indicate that tracking error is small on average, however CORN shows average excess returns significantly smaller than zero. The CORN ETF is returning a smaller positive value compared to the asset basket when asset basket returns are greater than zero and a larger negative value compared to the asset basket when asset basket returns are less than zero. The CORN, WEAT, USO, and UGA ETFs are found to move less aggressively than the respective asset baskets they track. While errors were small on average, large tracking errors were present across ETFs. The size of errors were found to be impacted by large price moves, as well as seasonality on a monthly and yearly level. USDA reports impacted the size of errors for CORN, WEAT and SOYB while EIA reports had no impact on error size. The mispricing analysis concluded that CORN and SOYB trade at a discount to Net Asset Value on average while WEAT trades at a premium. Master of Science