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The spatial distribution of the gaseous components of the Milky Way is of great importance for a number of different fields, e.g. Galactic structure, star formation and cosmic rays. However, obtaining distance information to gaseous clouds in the interstellar medium from Doppler-shifted line emission is notoriously difficult given our unique vantage point in the Galaxy. It requires precise knowledge of gas velocities and generally suffers from distance ambiguities. Previous works often assumed the optically thin limit (no absorption), a fixed velocity field, and lack resolution overall. We aim to overcome these issues and improve previous reconstructions of the gaseous constituents of the interstellar medium of the Galaxy. We use 3D Gaussian processes to model correlations in the interstellar medium, including correlations between different lines of sight, and enforce a spatially coherent structure in the prior. For modelling the transport of radiation from the emitting gas to us as observers, we take absorption effects into account. A special numerical grid ensures high resolution nearby. We infer the spatial distributions of HI, CO, their emission line-widths, and the Galactic velocity field in a joint Bayesian inference. We further constrain these fields with complementary data from Galactic masers and young stellar object clusters. Our main result consists of a set of samples that implicitly contain statistical uncertainties. The resulting maps are spatially coherent and reproduce the data with high fidelity. We confirm previous findings regarding the warping and flaring of the Galactic disc. A comparison with 3D dust maps reveals a good agreement on scales larger than approximately 400 pc. While our results are not free of artefacts, they present a big step forward in obtaining high quality 3D maps of the interstellar medium., Comment: 21 pages, 22 figures

Cosmic rays (CRs) play a major role in the dynamics of the interstellar medium (ISM). Their interactions and transport ionize, heat, and push the ISM thereby coupling different regions of it. The spatial distribution of CRs depends on the distribution of their sources as well as the ISM constituents they interact with, such as gas, starlight, and magnetic fields. Particularly, gas interacts closely with CRs, influencing CR fluxes and gamma -ray emission. We illustrate the influence of 3D gas structures on CR transport and gamma -ray emission. We use the PICARD code and multiple samples of recent 3D reconstructions of the HI and H$_2$ Galactic gas constituents to investigate the impact on the transport of CRs and emission of gamma -rays. We find the necessary transport parameters to reproduce local measurements of CR fluxes, and see that they depend on the local distribution of gas density and structure. The distribution of CR fluxes exhibits energy-dependent structures that vary for all CR species due to their corresponding loss processes. Regions of enhanced secondary (primary) species are spatially correlated (anti-correlated) with the gas density. We observe a high sensitivity of the gamma -ray emission on the contrast of gas structures, as those determine the 3D spatial distributions of hadronic interactions and bremsstrahlung. We find that corresponding gas-induced structures in the distribution of CR electrons are also visible in Inverse Compton (IC) emission. Due to the aforementioned sensitivity, the analysis of CR data for CR sources and transport parameters requires the usage of accurate 3D gas maps.

In this paper, we present an entropy-stable (ES) discretization using a nodal discontinuous Galerkin (DG) method for the ideal multi-ion magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD) equations. We start by performing a continuous entropy analysis of the ideal multi-ion MHD system, described by, e.g., Toth (2010) [Multi-Ion Magnetohydrodynamics], which describes the motion of multi-ion plasmas with independent momentum and energy equations for each ion species. Following the continuous entropy analysis, we propose an algebraic manipulation to the multi-ion MHD system, such that entropy consistency can be transferred from the continuous analysis to its discrete approximation. Moreover, we augment the system of equations with a generalized Lagrange multiplier (GLM) technique to have an additional cleaning mechanism of the magnetic field divergence error. We first derive robust entropy-conservative (EC) fluxes for the alternative formulation of the multi-ion GLM-MHD system that satisfy a Tadmor-type condition and are consistent with existing EC fluxes for single-fluid GLM-MHD equations. Using these numerical two-point fluxes, we construct high-order EC and ES DG discretizations of the ideal multi-ion MHD system using collocated Legendre--Gauss--Lobatto summation-by-parts (SBP) operators. The resulting nodal DG schemes satisfy the second-law of thermodynamics at the semi-discrete level, while maintaining high-order convergence and local node-wise conservation properties. We demonstrate the high-order convergence, and the EC and ES properties of our scheme with numerical validation experiments. Moreover, we demonstrate the importance of the GLM divergence technique and the ES discretization to improve the robustness properties of a DG discretization of the multi-ion MHD system by solving a challenging magnetized Kelvin-Helmholtz instability problem that exhibits MHD turbulence.

Blockchain security is becoming increasingly relevant in today's cyberspace as it extends its influence in many industries. This paper focuses on protecting the lowest level layer in the blockchain, particularly the P2P network that allows the nodes to communicate and share information. The P2P network layer may be vulnerable to several families of attacks, such as Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS), eclipse attacks, or Sybil attacks. This layer is prone to threats inherited from traditional P2P networks, and it must be analyzed and understood by collecting data and extracting insights from the network behavior to reduce those risks. We introduce Tikuna, an open-source tool for monitoring and detecting potential attacks on the Ethereum blockchain P2P network, at an early stage. Tikuna employs an unsupervised Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) method based on Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) to detect attacks and alert users. Empirical results indicate that the proposed approach significantly improves detection performance, with the ability to detect and classify attacks, including eclipse attacks, Covert Flash attacks, and others that target the Ethereum blockchain P2P network layer, with high accuracy. Our research findings demonstrate that Tikuna is a valuable security tool for assisting operators to efficiently monitor and safeguard the status of Ethereum validators and the wider P2P network, Comment: 15 pages, 2 figures, submitted to ISPEC 2023 Conference

We extend the monolithic convex limiting (MCL) methodology to nodal discontinuous Galerkin spectral element methods (DGSEM). The use of Legendre-Gauss-Lobatto (LGL) quadrature endows collocated DGSEM space discretizations of nonlinear hyperbolic problems with properties that greatly simplify the design of invariant domain preserving high-resolution schemes. Compared to many other continuous and discontinuous Galerkin method variants, a particular advantage of the LGL spectral operator is the availability of a natural decomposition into a compatible subcell flux discretization. Representing a high-order spatial semi-discretization in terms of intermediate states, we perform flux limiting in a manner that keeps these states and the results of Runge-Kutta stages in convex invariant domains. Additionally, local bounds may be imposed on scalar quantities of interest. In contrast to limiting approaches based on predictor-corrector algorithms, our MCL procedure for LGL-DGSEM yields nonlinear flux approximations that are independent of the time-step size and can be further modified to enforce entropy stability. To demonstrate the robustness of MCL/DGSEM schemes for the compressible Euler equations, we run simulations for challenging setups featuring strong shocks, steep density gradients and vortex dominated flows.

In this paper, we show that diagonal-norm summation by parts (SBP) discretizations of general non-conservative systems of hyperbolic balance laws can be rewritten as a finite-volume-type formula, also known as flux-differencing formula, if the non-conservative terms can be written as the product of a local and a symmetric contribution. Furthermore, we show that the existence of a flux-differencing formula enables the use of recent subcell limiting strategies to improve the robustness of the high-order discretizations. To demonstrate the utility of the novel flux-differencing formula, we construct hybrid schemes that combine high-order SBP methods (the discontinuous Galerkin spectral element method and a high-order SBP finite difference method) with a compatible low-order finite volume (FV) scheme at the subcell level. We apply the hybrid schemes to solve challenging magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) problems featuring strong shocks.

In this work, we propose an extension of telescopic derivative operators for the DGSEM with Gauss nodes, and we prove that this formulation is equivalent to its usual matrix counterpart. Among other possible applications, this allows extending the stabilization methods already developed for Gauss-Lobatto nodes to Gauss nodes, also ensuring properties such as entropy stability while retaining their improved accuracy., Comment: Short note

In this work, we extend the $\tau$-estimation method to unsteady problems and use it to adapt the polynomial degree for high-order discontinuous Galerkin simulations of unsteady flows. The adaptation is local and anisotropic and allows capturing relevant unsteady flow features while enhancing the accuracy of time evolving functionals (e.g., lift, drag). To achieve an efficient and unsteady truncation error-based $p$-adaptation scheme, we first revisit the definition of the truncation error, studying the effect of the treatment of the mass matrix arising from the temporal term. Secondly, we extend the $\tau$-estimation strategy to unsteady problems. Finally, we present and compare two adaptation strategies for unsteady problems: the dynamic and static $p$-adaptation methods. In the first one (dynamic) the error is measured periodically during a simulation and the polynomial degree is adapted immediately after every estimation procedure. In the second one (static) the error is also measured periodically, but only one $p$-adaptation process is performed after several estimation stages, using a combination of the periodic error measures. The static $p$-adaptation strategy is suitable for time-periodic flows, while the dynamic one can be generalized to any flow evolution. We consider two test cases to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed $p$-adaptation strategies. The first one considers the compressible Euler equations to simulate the advection of a density pulse. The second one solves the compressible Navier-Stokes equations to simulate the flow around a cylinder at Re=100. The local and anisotropic adaptation enables significant reductions in the number of degrees of freedom with respect to uniform refinement, leading to speed-ups of up to $\times4.5$ for the Euler test case and $\times2.2$ for the Navier-Stokes test case.

A paraconsistent type theory (an extension of a fragment of intuitionistic type theory by adding opposite types) is here extended by adding co-function types. It is shown that, in the extended paraconsistent type system, the opposite type constructor can be viewed as an involution operation that transforms each type into its dual type. Moreover, intuitive interpretations of opposite and co-function types under different interpretations of types are discussed., Comment: In Proceedings LSFA 2021, arXiv:2204.03415

High order entropy stable schemes provide improved robustness for computational simulations of fluid flows. However, additional stabilization and positivity preserving limiting can still be required for variable-density flows with under-resolved features. We demonstrate numerically that entropy stable DG methods which incorporate an "entropy projection" are less likely to require additional limiting to retain positivity for certain types of flows. We conclude by investigating potential explanations for this observed improvement in robustness.

In this paper, we present an entropy-stable Gauss collocation discontinuous Galerkin (DG) method on 3D curvilinear meshes for the GLM-MHD equations: the single-fluid magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD) equations with a generalized Lagrange multiplier (GLM) divergence cleaning mechanism. For the continuous entropy analysis to hold and to ensure Galilean invariance in the divergence cleaning technique, the GLM-MHD system requires the use of non-conservative terms. Traditionally, entropy-stable DG discretizations have used a collocated nodal variant of the DG method, also known as the discontinuous Galerkin spectral element method (DGSEM) on Legendre-Gauss-Lobatto (LGL) points. Recently, Chan et al. ("Efficient Entropy Stable Gauss Collocation Methods". SIAM -2019) presented an entropy-stable DGSEM scheme that uses Legendre-Gauss points (instead of LGL points) for conservation laws. Our main contribution is to extend the discretization technique of Chan et al. to the non-conservative GLM-MHD system. We provide a numerical verification of the entropy behavior and convergence properties of our novel scheme on 3D curvilinear meshes. Moreover, we test the robustness and accuracy of our scheme with a magneto-hydrodynamic Kelvin-Helmholtz instability problem. The numerical experiments suggest that the entropy-stable DGSEM on Gauss points for the GLM-MHD system is more accurate than the LGL counterpart.

We present a general family of subcell limiting strategies to construct robust high-order accurate nodal discontinuous Galerkin (DG) schemes. The main strategy is to construct compatible low order finite volume (FV) type discretizations that allow for convex blending with the high-order variant with the goal of guaranteeing additional properties, such as bounds on physical quantities and/or guaranteed entropy dissipation. For an implementation of this main strategy, four main ingredients are identified that may be combined in a flexible manner: (i) a nodal high-order DG method on Legendre-Gauss-Lobatto nodes, (ii) a compatible robust subcell FV scheme, (iii) a convex combination strategy for the two schemes, which can be element-wise or subcell-wise, and (iv) a strategy to compute the convex blending factors, which can be either based on heuristic troubled-cell indicators, or using ideas from flux-corrected transport methods. By carefully designing the metric terms of the subcell FV method, the resulting methods can be used on unstructured curvilinear meshes, are locally conservative, can handle strong shocks efficiently while directly guaranteeing physical bounds on quantities such as density, pressure or entropy. We further show that it is possible to choose the four ingredients to recover existing methods such as a provably entropy dissipative subcell shock-capturing approach or a sparse invariant domain preserving approach. We test the versatility of the presented strategies and mix and match the four ingredients to solve challenging simulation setups, such as the KPP problem (a hyperbolic conservation law with non-convex flux function), turbulent and hypersonic Euler simulations, and MHD problems featuring shocks and turbulence., Comment: 26 pages, 11 figures

Many modern discontinuous Galerkin (DG) methods for conservation laws make use of summation by parts operators and flux differencing to achieve kinetic energy preservation or entropy stability. While these techniques increase the robustness of DG methods significantly, they are also computationally more demanding than standard weak form nodal DG methods. We present several implementation techniques to improve the efficiency of flux differencing DG methods that use tensor product quadrilateral or hexahedral elements, in 2D or 3D respectively. Focus is mostly given to CPUs and DG methods for the compressible Euler equations, although these techniques are generally also useful for other physical systems including the compressible Navier-Stokes and magnetohydrodynamics equations. We present results using two open source codes, Trixi.jl written in Julia and FLUXO written in Fortran, to demonstrate that our proposed implementation techniques are applicable to different code bases and programming languages.

In this paper, we present a positivity-preserving limiter for nodal Discontinuous Galerkin disctretizations of the compressible Euler equations. We use a Legendre-Gauss-Lobatto (LGL) Discontinuous Galerkin Spectral Element Method (DGSEM) and blend it locally with a consistent LGL-subcell Finite Volume (FV) discretization using a hybrid FV/DGSEM scheme that was recently proposed for entropy stable shock capturing. We show that our strategy is able to ensure robust simulations with positive density and pressure when using the standard and the split-form DGSEM. Furthermore, we show the applicability of our FV positivity limiter in extremely under-resolved vortex dominated simulations and in problems with shocks.

The second paper of this series presents two robust entropy stable shock-capturing methods for discontinuous Galerkin spectral element (DGSEM) discretizations of the compressible magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD) equations. Specifically, we use the resistive GLM-MHD equations, which include a divergence cleaning mechanism that is based on a generalized Lagrange multiplier (GLM). For the continuous entropy analysis to hold, and due to the divergence-free constraint on the magnetic field, the GLM-MHD system requires the use of non-conservative terms, which need special treatment. Hennemann et al. [DOI:10.1016/j.jcp.2020.109935] recently presented an entropy stable shock-capturing strategy for DGSEM discretizations of the Euler equations that blends the DGSEM scheme with a subcell first-order finite volume (FV) method. Our first contribution is the extension of the method of Hennemann et al. to systems with non-conservative terms, such as the GLM-MHD equations. In our approach, the advective and non-conservative terms of the equations are discretized with a hybrid FV/DGSEM scheme, whereas the visco-resistive terms are discretized only with the high-order DGSEM method. We prove that the extended method is entropy stable on three-dimensional unstructured curvilinear meshes. Our second contribution is the derivation and analysis of a second entropy stable shock-capturing method that provides enhanced resolution by using a subcell reconstruction procedure that is carefully built to ensure entropy stability. We provide a numerical verification of the properties of the hybrid FV/DGSEM schemes on curvilinear meshes and show their robustness and accuracy with common benchmark cases, such as the Orszag-Tang vortex and the GEM reconnection challenge. Finally, we simulate a space physics application: the interaction of Jupiter's magnetic field with the plasma torus generated by the moon Io.

The main result in this paper is a provably entropy stable shock capturing approach for the high order entropy stable DGSEM based on a hybrid blending with a subcell low order variant. Since it is possible to rewrite a high order SBP operator into an equivalent conservative finite volume form, we were able to design a low order scheme directly with the LGL nodes that is compatible to the discrete entropy analysis used for the proof of the entropy stable DGSEM. Furthermore, we present a hybrid low order/high order discretisation where it is possible to seamlessly blend between the two approaches, while still being provably entropy stable. We are able to extend the approach to three spatial dimensions on unstructured curvilinear hexahedral meshes. We validate our theoretical findings and demonstrate convergence order for smooth problems, conservation of the primary quantities and discrete entropy stability for an arbitrary blending on curvilinear grids. In practical simulations, we connect the blending factor to a local troubled element indicator that provides the control of the amount of low order dissipation injected into the high order scheme. We modified an existing shock indicator, which is based on the modal polynomial representation, to our provably stable hybrid scheme. The aim is to reduce the impact of the parameters as good as possible. We describe our indicator in detail and demonstrate its robustness in combination with the hybrid scheme, as it is possible to compute all the different test cases without changing the indicator. The test cases include e.g. the double Mach reflection setup, forward and backward facing steps with shock Mach numbers up to 100. The proposed approach is relatively straight forward to implement in an existing entropy stable DGSEM code as only modifications local to an element are necessary., Comment: 35 pages, 10 figures

We present a static-condensation method for time-implicit discretizations of the Discontinuous Galerkin Spectral Element Method on Gauss-Lobatto points (GL-DGSEM). We show that, when solving the compressible Navier-Stokes equations, it is possible to reorganize the linear system that results from the implicit time-integration of the GL-DGSEM as a Schur complement problem, which can be efficiently solved using static condensation. The use of static condensation reduces the linear system size and improves the condition number of the system matrix, which translates into shorter computational times when using direct and iterative solvers. The statically condensed GL-DGSEM presented here can be applied to linear and nonlinear advection-diffusion partial differential equations in conservation form. To test it we solve the compressible Navier-Stokes equations with direct and Krylov subspace solvers, and we show for a selected problem that using the statically condensed GL-DGSEM leads to speed-ups of up to $200$ when compared to the time-explicit GL-DGSEM, and speed-ups of up to three when compared with the time-implicit GL-DGSEM that solves the global system. The GL-DGSEM has gained increasing popularity in recent years because it satisfies the summation-by-parts property, which enables the construction of provably entropy stable schemes, and because it is computationally very efficient. In this paper, we show that the GL-DGSEM has an additional advantage: It can be statically condensed.

This work presents an interferometric study of the massive-binary fraction in the Orion Trapezium Cluster with the recently comissioned GRAVITY instrument. We observe a total of 16 stars of mainly OB spectral type. We find three previously unknown companions for $\theta ^1$ Ori B, $\theta ^2$ Ori B, and $\theta ^2$ Ori C. We determine a separation for the previously suspected companion of NU Ori. We confirm four companions for $\theta ^1$ Ori A, $\theta ^1$ Ori C, $\theta ^1$ Ori D, and $\theta ^2$ Ori A, all with substantially improved astrometry and photometric mass estimates. We refine the orbit of the eccentric high-mass binary $\theta ^1$ Ori C and we are able to derive a new orbit for $\theta ^1$ Ori D. We find a system mass of 21.7 $M_{\odot}$ and a period of $53$ days. Together with other previously detected companions seen in spectroscopy or direct imaging, eleven of the 16 high-mass stars are multiple systems. We obtain a total number of 22 companions with separations up to 600 AU. The companion fraction of the early B and O stars in our sample is about 2, significantly higher than in earlier studies of mostly OB associations. The separation distribution hints towards a bimodality. Such a bimodality has been previously found in A stars, but rarely in OB binaries, which up to this point have been assumed to be mostly compact with a tail of wider companions. We also do not find a substantial population of equal-mass binaries. The observed distribution of mass ratios declines steeply with mass, and like the direct star counts, indicates that our companions follow a standard power law initial mass function. Again, this is in contrast to earlier findings of flat mass ratio distributions in OB associations. We exclude collision as a dominant formation mechanism but find no clear preference for core accretion or competitive accretion., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A

High-order DG methods have become a popular technique in computational fluid dynamics because their accuracy increases spectrally in smooth solutions with the order of the approximation. However, their main drawback is that increasing the order also increases the computational cost. Several techniques have been introduced in the past to reduce this cost. On the one hand, local mesh adaptation strategies based on error estimation have been proposed to reduce the number of degrees of freedom while keeping a similar accuracy. On the other hand, multigrid solvers may accelerate time marching computations for a fixed number of degrees of freedom. In this paper, we combine both methods and present a novel anisotropic p-adaptation multigrid algorithm for steady-state problems that uses the multigrid scheme both as a solver and as an anisotropic error estimator. To achieve this, we show that a recently developed anisotropic truncation error estimator [\textit{Rueda-Ram\'irez et al., Truncation Error Estimation in the p-Anisotropic DGSEM, J. of Scientific Computing}] is perfectly suited to be performed inside the multigrid cycle with negligible extra cost. Furthermore, we introduce a multi-stage p-adaptation procedure which reduces the computational time when very accurate results are required. The proposed methods are tested for the compressible Navier-Stokes equations, where we investigate two cases: the 2D flow on a flat plate is studied to assess accuracy and computational cost of the algorithm, where a speed-up of 816 is achieved compared to the traditional explicit method; and the 3D flow around a sphere is simulated and used to test the anisotropic properties of the proposed method, where a speed-up of 152 is achieved compared to the explicit method. The proposed multi-stage procedure achieved a speed-up of 2.6 in comparison to the single-stage method in highly accurate simulations.

In the context of Discontinuous Galerkin Spectral Element Methods (DGSEM), $\tau$-estimation has been successfully used for p-adaptation algorithms. This method estimates the truncation error of representations with different polynomial orders using the solution on a reference mesh of relatively high order. In this paper, we present a novel anisotropic truncation error estimator derived from the $\tau$-estimation procedure for DGSEM. We exploit the tensor product basis properties of the numerical solution to design a method where the total truncation error is calculated as a sum of its directional components. We show that the new error estimator is cheaper to evaluate than previous implementations of the $\tau$-estimation procedure and that it obtains more accurate extrapolations of the truncation error for representations of a higher order than the reference mesh. The robustness of the method allows performing the p-adaptation strategy with coarser reference solutions, thus further reducing the computational cost. The proposed estimator is validated using the method of manufactured solutions in a test case for the compressible Navier-Stokes equations.

Nowadays a lot of data is collected in online forums. One of the key tasks is to determine the social structure of these online groups, for example the identification of subgroups within a larger group. We will approach the grouping of individual as a classification problem. The classifier will be based on fuzzy logic. The input to the classifier will be linguistic features and degree of relationships (among individuals). The output of the classifiers are the groupings of individuals. We also incorporate a method that ranks the members of the detected subgroup to identify the hierarchies in each subgroup. Data from the HBO television show The Wire is used to analyze the efficacy and usefulness of fuzzy logic based methods as alternative methods to classical statistical methods usually used for these problems. The proposed methodology could detect automatically the most influential members of each organization The Wire with 90% accuracy.