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The Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA) was a collaborative venture between the Lepidopterists’ Society of Africa (LepSoc Africa), the Brenton Blue Trust (BBT) and the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), and formed part of the National Biodiversity Assessment (NBA). SALCA was founded on the importance of Lepidoptera both ecologically and as biodiversity indicators and the proven expertise of the participants during the Southern African Butterfly Conservation Assessment (SABCA). The main outcomes of the SALCA project are presented and discussed here.The SALCA tool, a custom-designed interactive distribution database, enabled high quality data to be derived so that accurate conservation assessments could be produced in accordance with IUCN methodology. The Red Lists of SALCA and SABCA facilitated the first opportunity to calculate the Red List Index (RLI) for South African butterflies during the period from 2012–2018. Other metrics required for the NBA included protection level and threats analyses. A further outcome was the critical habitat mapping for butterflies, which formed part of a screening tool implemented by SANBI, to ensure that land use changes did not cause any further loss of butterfly biodiversity.A comprehensive distribution database was developed for South African moths, enabling data to be analysed so that moth species potentially threatened could be short-listed for further investigation.Geographical hotspots and ecosystems (vegetation types) containing butterflies of conservation concern are highlighted. The societal, economic and human wellbeing benefits of conserving Lepidoptera are identified. Responses by LepSoc Africa to the increasing pressures on South African Lepidoptera biodiversity, are also reported on and discussed. The significant outcomes of SABCA and SALCA are benchmarked against a well-known European butterfly atlasing and conservation assessment project.The 165 SALCA Red Lists and conservation assessments are presented at the end of this publication.

Issue consists of one article divided into downloadable PDFs. This section contains the conservation assessments and Red Listings (all global) of the taxa assessed during the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA) project, ordered alphabetically by family and then by genus, species and subspecies. Details of the methods used can be found in the main article, with each assessment set out as follows: Taxon scientific name followed by the describer of the taxon and the date. English and Afrikaans common names. Name of the assessor/ taxon author. Red Listing with relevant categories and criteria, as per the IUCN Red Listing protocol (IUCN, 2017). For those Least Concern taxa which are rare, their rarity category is also given. Also indicated are those taxa endemic to the South Africa. Taxon images are arranged with males above and females below (upper side and underside). Specimen label data and photo credits are tabulated on pages 155–160. Seasonality table: This table shows the months of occurrence of the taxon, starting August and ending July. Each month is divided into quarters. Quarters for which there are Accepted records are highlighted in grey. Distribution map: The map’s extent is for South Africa. Data points are displayed for Accepted and Locally Extinct records. The following key is used for each data point: Red List category Symbol EX (also if a taxon is locally extinct) Black CR‒PE Dark purple CR Red EN Orange VU Yellow NT Mustard DD Lilac LC (rare categories) Blue LC Green Type locality: As originally stated by the describer. Taxonomy: Highlighting any relevant taxonomic issues. Distribution: A description of the taxon’s distribution. Habitat: A description of the taxon’s habitat. Vegetation types: The vegetation types where the taxon is found, based on the 2018 vegetation map (SANBI, 2018), for records flagged as both Accepted and Locally Extinct. For those sites where the taxon is locally extinct, the vegetation types are given in parentheses. Assessment rationale: The assessment rationale provides information which justifies the Red Listing and related categories and criteria. Change in status from the Southern African Butterfly Conservation Assessment (SABCA): For those taxa where the Red Listing changed from the previous SABCA assessment of 2012 (Mecenero et al., 2013), an evaluation is given of whether or not the change in status is genuine or non-genuine. Threats: A description of any threats relevant to the taxon. Conservation measures and research required: Any conservation measures or research required are mentioned here, where relevant. Relevant literature: Taxon-specific references published since SABCA are listed in this field, where applicable. The key references listed below were perused for all assessments. An example of citing a specific conservation assessment: “Woodhall, S.E. 2020. Abantis bicolor. pp. 34–35 In: Mecenero et al. 2020. Outcomes of the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA). Metamorphosis 31(4): 1–160”. Abbreviations: AOO: Area of occupancy CR: Critically Endangered CR–PE: Critically Endangered – Possibly Extinct DD: Data Deficient EN: Endangered EOO: Extent of occurrence EX: Extinct LC: Least Concern NT: Near Threatened VU: Vulnerable RELEVANT LITERATURE The relevant literature listed below applies to all the conservation assessments. Literature applying only to specific taxa is given after each conservation assessment. HENNING, G.A., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 2009. South African Red Data Book: butterflies. SANBI Biodiversity Series Pretoria, South African National Biodiversity Institute. 13: 1–158. IUCN. 2017. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 13. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. Download from:http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf MECENERO, S., BALL, J.B., EDGE, D.A., HAMER, M.L., HENNING, G.A., KRÜGER, M., PRINGLE, E.L., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & WILLIAMS, M.C. 2013. Conservation Assessment of Butterflies of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland: Red List and Atlas. Saftronics (Pty) Ltd., Johannesburg & Animal Demography Unit, Cape Town. PRINGLE, E.L., HENNING, G.A. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 1994. Pennington's Butterflies of southern Africa. 2nd Edition. Cape Town, Struik-Winchester. 1–800, 210 pls. SANBI. 2018 Beta Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Shapefile) [vector geospatial dataset] 2018. https://bgis.sanbi.org/SpatialDataset/Detail/669 (Accessed on 28 June 2020). WILLIAMS, M.C. 2019. Afrotropical Butterflies Encyclopaedia.http://www.metamorphosis.org.za/?p=articles&s=atb WOODHALL, S.E. 2020. Field guide to butterflies of South Africa (2nd Edn). Penguin Books South Africa.

Issue consists of one article divided into downloadable PDFs. This section contains the conservation assessments and Red Listings (all global) of the taxa assessed during the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA) project, ordered alphabetically by family and then by genus, species and subspecies. Details of the methods used can be found in the main article, with each assessment set out as follows: Taxon scientific name followed by the describer of the taxon and the date. English and Afrikaans common names. Name of the assessor/ taxon author. Red Listing with relevant categories and criteria, as per the IUCN Red Listing protocol (IUCN, 2017). For those Least Concern taxa which are rare, their rarity category is also given. Also indicated are those taxa endemic to the South Africa. Taxon images are arranged with males above and females below (upper side and underside). Specimen label data and photo credits are tabulated on pages 155–160. Seasonality table: This table shows the months of occurrence of the taxon, starting August and ending July. Each month is divided into quarters. Quarters for which there are Accepted records are highlighted in grey. Distribution map: The map’s extent is for South Africa. Data points are displayed for Accepted and Locally Extinct records. The following key is used for each data point: Red List category Symbol EX (also if a taxon is locally extinct) Black CR‒PE Dark purple CR Red EN Orange VU Yellow NT Mustard DD Lilac LC (rare categories) Blue LC Green Type locality: As originally stated by the describer. Taxonomy: Highlighting any relevant taxonomic issues. Distribution: A description of the taxon’s distribution. Habitat: A description of the taxon’s habitat. Vegetation types: The vegetation types where the taxon is found, based on the 2018 vegetation map (SANBI, 2018), for records flagged as both Accepted and Locally Extinct. For those sites where the taxon is locally extinct, the vegetation types are given in parentheses. Assessment rationale: The assessment rationale provides information which justifies the Red Listing and related categories and criteria. Change in status from the Southern African Butterfly Conservation Assessment (SABCA): For those taxa where the Red Listing changed from the previous SABCA assessment of 2012 (Mecenero et al., 2013), an evaluation is given of whether or not the change in status is genuine or non-genuine. Threats: A description of any threats relevant to the taxon. Conservation measures and research required: Any conservation measures or research required are mentioned here, where relevant. Relevant literature: Taxon-specific references published since SABCA are listed in this field, where applicable. The key references listed below were perused for all assessments. An example of citing a specific conservation assessment: “Woodhall, S.E. 2020. Abantis bicolor. pp. 34–35 In: Mecenero et al. 2020. Outcomes of the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA). Metamorphosis 31(4): 1–160”. Abbreviations: AOO: Area of occupancy CR: Critically Endangered CR–PE: Critically Endangered – Possibly Extinct DD: Data Deficient EN: Endangered EOO: Extent of occurrence EX: Extinct LC: Least Concern NT: Near Threatened VU: Vulnerable RELEVANT LITERATURE The relevant literature listed below applies to all the conservation assessments. Literature applying only to specific taxa is given after each conservation assessment. HENNING, G.A., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 2009. South African Red Data Book: butterflies. SANBI Biodiversity Series Pretoria, South African National Biodiversity Institute. 13: 1–158. IUCN. 2017. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 13. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. Download from:http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf MECENERO, S., BALL, J.B., EDGE, D.A., HAMER, M.L., HENNING, G.A., KRÜGER, M., PRINGLE, E.L., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & WILLIAMS, M.C. 2013. Conservation Assessment of Butterflies of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland: Red List and Atlas. Saftronics (Pty) Ltd., Johannesburg & Animal Demography Unit, Cape Town. PRINGLE, E.L., HENNING, G.A. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 1994. Pennington's Butterflies of southern Africa. 2nd Edition. Cape Town, Struik-Winchester. 1–800, 210 pls. SANBI. 2018 Beta Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Shapefile) [vector geospatial dataset] 2018. https://bgis.sanbi.org/SpatialDataset/Detail/669 (Accessed on 28 June 2020). WILLIAMS, M.C. 2019. Afrotropical Butterflies Encyclopaedia.http://www.metamorphosis.org.za/?p=articles&s=atb WOODHALL, S.E. 2020. Field guide to butterflies of South Africa (2nd Edn). Penguin Books South Africa.

Issue consists of one article divided into downloadable PDFs. This section contains the conservation assessments and Red Listings (all global) of the taxa assessed during the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA) project, ordered alphabetically by family and then by genus, species and subspecies. Details of the methods used can be found in the main article, with each assessment set out as follows: Taxon scientific name followed by the describer of the taxon and the date. English and Afrikaans common names. Name of the assessor/ taxon author. Red Listing with relevant categories and criteria, as per the IUCN Red Listing protocol (IUCN, 2017). For those Least Concern taxa which are rare, their rarity category is also given. Also indicated are those taxa endemic to the South Africa. Taxon images are arranged with males above and females below (upper side and underside). Specimen label data and photo credits are tabulated on pages 155–160. Seasonality table: This table shows the months of occurrence of the taxon, starting August and ending July. Each month is divided into quarters. Quarters for which there are Accepted records are highlighted in grey. Distribution map: The map’s extent is for South Africa. Data points are displayed for Accepted and Locally Extinct records. The following key is used for each data point: Red List category Symbol EX (also if a taxon is locally extinct) Black CR‒PE Dark purple CR Red EN Orange VU Yellow NT Mustard DD Lilac LC (rare categories) Blue LC Green Type locality: As originally stated by the describer. Taxonomy: Highlighting any relevant taxonomic issues. Distribution: A description of the taxon’s distribution. Habitat: A description of the taxon’s habitat. Vegetation types: The vegetation types where the taxon is found, based on the 2018 vegetation map (SANBI, 2018), for records flagged as both Accepted and Locally Extinct. For those sites where the taxon is locally extinct, the vegetation types are given in parentheses. Assessment rationale: The assessment rationale provides information which justifies the Red Listing and related categories and criteria. Change in status from the Southern African Butterfly Conservation Assessment (SABCA): For those taxa where the Red Listing changed from the previous SABCA assessment of 2012 (Mecenero et al., 2013), an evaluation is given of whether or not the change in status is genuine or non-genuine. Threats: A description of any threats relevant to the taxon. Conservation measures and research required: Any conservation measures or research required are mentioned here, where relevant. Relevant literature: Taxon-specific references published since SABCA are listed in this field, where applicable. The key references listed below were perused for all assessments. An example of citing a specific conservation assessment: “Woodhall, S.E. 2020. Abantis bicolor. pp. 34–35 In: Mecenero et al. 2020. Outcomes of the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA). Metamorphosis 31(4): 1–160”. Abbreviations: AOO: Area of occupancy CR: Critically Endangered CR–PE: Critically Endangered – Possibly Extinct DD: Data Deficient EN: Endangered EOO: Extent of occurrence EX: Extinct LC: Least Concern NT: Near Threatened VU: Vulnerable RELEVANT LITERATURE The relevant literature listed below applies to all the conservation assessments. Literature applying only to specific taxa is given after each conservation assessment. HENNING, G.A., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 2009. South African Red Data Book: butterflies. SANBI Biodiversity Series Pretoria, South African National Biodiversity Institute. 13: 1–158. IUCN. 2017. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 13. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. Download from:http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf MECENERO, S., BALL, J.B., EDGE, D.A., HAMER, M.L., HENNING, G.A., KRÜGER, M., PRINGLE, E.L., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & WILLIAMS, M.C. 2013. Conservation Assessment of Butterflies of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland: Red List and Atlas. Saftronics (Pty) Ltd., Johannesburg & Animal Demography Unit, Cape Town. PRINGLE, E.L., HENNING, G.A. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 1994. Pennington's Butterflies of southern Africa. 2nd Edition. Cape Town, Struik-Winchester. 1–800, 210 pls. SANBI. 2018 Beta Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Shapefile) [vector geospatial dataset] 2018. https://bgis.sanbi.org/SpatialDataset/Detail/669 (Accessed on 28 June 2020). WILLIAMS, M.C. 2019. Afrotropical Butterflies Encyclopaedia.http://www.metamorphosis.org.za/?p=articles&s=atb WOODHALL, S.E. 2020. Field guide to butterflies of South Africa (2nd Edn). Penguin Books South Africa.

Issue consists of one article divided into downloadable PDFs. This section contains the conservation assessments and Red Listings (all global) of the taxa assessed during the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA) project, ordered alphabetically by family and then by genus, species and subspecies. Details of the methods used can be found in the main article, with each assessment set out as follows: Taxon scientific name followed by the describer of the taxon and the date. English and Afrikaans common names. Name of the assessor/ taxon author. Red Listing with relevant categories and criteria, as per the IUCN Red Listing protocol (IUCN, 2017). For those Least Concern taxa which are rare, their rarity category is also given. Also indicated are those taxa endemic to the South Africa. Taxon images are arranged with males above and females below (upper side and underside). Specimen label data and photo credits are tabulated on pages 155–160. Seasonality table: This table shows the months of occurrence of the taxon, starting August and ending July. Each month is divided into quarters. Quarters for which there are Accepted records are highlighted in grey. Distribution map: The map’s extent is for South Africa. Data points are displayed for Accepted and Locally Extinct records. The following key is used for each data point: Red List category Symbol EX (also if a taxon is locally extinct) Black CR‒PE Dark purple CR Red EN Orange VU Yellow NT Mustard DD Lilac LC (rare categories) Blue LC Green Type locality: As originally stated by the describer. Taxonomy: Highlighting any relevant taxonomic issues. Distribution: A description of the taxon’s distribution. Habitat: A description of the taxon’s habitat. Vegetation types: The vegetation types where the taxon is found, based on the 2018 vegetation map (SANBI, 2018), for records flagged as both Accepted and Locally Extinct. For those sites where the taxon is locally extinct, the vegetation types are given in parentheses. Assessment rationale: The assessment rationale provides information which justifies the Red Listing and related categories and criteria. Change in status from the Southern African Butterfly Conservation Assessment (SABCA): For those taxa where the Red Listing changed from the previous SABCA assessment of 2012 (Mecenero et al., 2013), an evaluation is given of whether or not the change in status is genuine or non-genuine. Threats: A description of any threats relevant to the taxon. Conservation measures and research required: Any conservation measures or research required are mentioned here, where relevant. Relevant literature: Taxon-specific references published since SABCA are listed in this field, where applicable. The key references listed below were perused for all assessments. An example of citing a specific conservation assessment: “Woodhall, S.E. 2020. Abantis bicolor. pp. 34–35 In: Mecenero et al. 2020. Outcomes of the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA). Metamorphosis 31(4): 1–160”. Abbreviations: AOO: Area of occupancy CR: Critically Endangered CR–PE: Critically Endangered – Possibly Extinct DD: Data Deficient EN: Endangered EOO: Extent of occurrence EX: Extinct LC: Least Concern NT: Near Threatened VU: Vulnerable RELEVANT LITERATURE The relevant literature listed below applies to all the conservation assessments. Literature applying only to specific taxa is given after each conservation assessment. HENNING, G.A., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 2009. South African Red Data Book: butterflies. SANBI Biodiversity Series Pretoria, South African National Biodiversity Institute. 13: 1–158. IUCN. 2017. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 13. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. Download from:http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf MECENERO, S., BALL, J.B., EDGE, D.A., HAMER, M.L., HENNING, G.A., KRÜGER, M., PRINGLE, E.L., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & WILLIAMS, M.C. 2013. Conservation Assessment of Butterflies of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland: Red List and Atlas. Saftronics (Pty) Ltd., Johannesburg & Animal Demography Unit, Cape Town. PRINGLE, E.L., HENNING, G.A. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 1994. Pennington's Butterflies of southern Africa. 2nd Edition. Cape Town, Struik-Winchester. 1–800, 210 pls. SANBI. 2018 Beta Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Shapefile) [vector geospatial dataset] 2018. https://bgis.sanbi.org/SpatialDataset/Detail/669 (Accessed on 28 June 2020). WILLIAMS, M.C. 2019. Afrotropical Butterflies Encyclopaedia.http://www.metamorphosis.org.za/?p=articles&s=atb WOODHALL, S.E. 2020. Field guide to butterflies of South Africa (2nd Edn). Penguin Books South Africa.

Issue consists of one article divided into downloadable PDFs. This section contains the conservation assessments and Red Listings (all global) of the taxa assessed during the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA) project, ordered alphabetically by family and then by genus, species and subspecies. Details of the methods used can be found in the main article, with each assessment set out as follows: Taxon scientific name followed by the describer of the taxon and the date. English and Afrikaans common names. Name of the assessor/ taxon author. Red Listing with relevant categories and criteria, as per the IUCN Red Listing protocol (IUCN, 2017). For those Least Concern taxa which are rare, their rarity category is also given. Also indicated are those taxa endemic to the South Africa. Taxon images are arranged with males above and females below (upper side and underside). Specimen label data and photo credits are tabulated on pages 155–160. Seasonality table: This table shows the months of occurrence of the taxon, starting August and ending July. Each month is divided into quarters. Quarters for which there are Accepted records are highlighted in grey. Distribution map: The map’s extent is for South Africa. Data points are displayed for Accepted and Locally Extinct records. The following key is used for each data point: Red List category Symbol EX (also if a taxon is locally extinct) Black CR‒PE Dark purple CR Red EN Orange VU Yellow NT Mustard DD Lilac LC (rare categories) Blue LC Green Type locality: As originally stated by the describer. Taxonomy: Highlighting any relevant taxonomic issues. Distribution: A description of the taxon’s distribution. Habitat: A description of the taxon’s habitat. Vegetation types: The vegetation types where the taxon is found, based on the 2018 vegetation map (SANBI, 2018), for records flagged as both Accepted and Locally Extinct. For those sites where the taxon is locally extinct, the vegetation types are given in parentheses. Assessment rationale: The assessment rationale provides information which justifies the Red Listing and related categories and criteria. Change in status from the Southern African Butterfly Conservation Assessment (SABCA): For those taxa where the Red Listing changed from the previous SABCA assessment of 2012 (Mecenero et al., 2013), an evaluation is given of whether or not the change in status is genuine or non-genuine. Threats: A description of any threats relevant to the taxon. Conservation measures and research required: Any conservation measures or research required are mentioned here, where relevant. Relevant literature: Taxon-specific references published since SABCA are listed in this field, where applicable. The key references listed below were perused for all assessments. An example of citing a specific conservation assessment: “Woodhall, S.E. 2020. Abantis bicolor. pp. 34–35 In: Mecenero et al. 2020. Outcomes of the Southern African Lepidoptera Conservation Assessment (SALCA). Metamorphosis 31(4): 1–160”. Abbreviations: AOO: Area of occupancy CR: Critically Endangered CR–PE: Critically Endangered – Possibly Extinct DD: Data Deficient EN: Endangered EOO: Extent of occurrence EX: Extinct LC: Least Concern NT: Near Threatened VU: Vulnerable RELEVANT LITERATURE The relevant literature listed below applies to all the conservation assessments. Literature applying only to specific taxa is given after each conservation assessment. HENNING, G.A., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 2009. South African Red Data Book: butterflies. SANBI Biodiversity Series Pretoria, South African National Biodiversity Institute. 13: 1–158. IUCN. 2017. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 13. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. Download from:http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf MECENERO, S., BALL, J.B., EDGE, D.A., HAMER, M.L., HENNING, G.A., KRÜGER, M., PRINGLE, E.L., TERBLANCHE, R.F. & WILLIAMS, M.C. 2013. Conservation Assessment of Butterflies of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland: Red List and Atlas. Saftronics (Pty) Ltd., Johannesburg & Animal Demography Unit, Cape Town. PRINGLE, E.L., HENNING, G.A. & BALL, J.B. (eds) 1994. Pennington's Butterflies of southern Africa. 2nd Edition. Cape Town, Struik-Winchester. 1–800, 210 pls. SANBI. 2018 Beta Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Shapefile) [vector geospatial dataset] 2018. https://bgis.sanbi.org/SpatialDataset/Detail/669 (Accessed on 28 June 2020). WILLIAMS, M.C. 2019. Afrotropical Butterflies Encyclopaedia.http://www.metamorphosis.org.za/?p=articles&s=atb WOODHALL, S.E. 2020. Field guide to butterflies of South Africa (2nd Edn). Penguin Books South Africa.

Despite its recognition as an important global resource for conservation, the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species only provides assessments of extinction risk for a small and biased subset of known biodiversity. A more complete Red List can better support species-level conservation by indicating how quickly we need to act on species deemed to be priorities for conservation action.Vascular plants represent one of the Red List knowledge gaps, with only 7% of species currently on the Red List (including in the Data Deficient and Least Concern categories). Using vascular plants as a case study we highlight how recent developments, such as changes to rules, improvements to data management systems, better assessment tools and training, can support Red List assessment activity. We also identify ongoing challenges, such as the need to support regional and national assessment initiatives, the largely voluntary nature of the Red List community, as well as the need to meet core operating costs for the Red List. Finally, we highlight how new opportunities such as automation and batch uploading can fast-track assessments, and how better monitoring of assessment growth can help assess the impact of new developments. Most of our findings are also applicable to other species-rich groups that are under-represented on the Red List.We examine trends in plant Red Listing and conclude that the rate of new assessments has not increased in line with what would be required to reach goals such as the Barometer of Life. This may result partly from a lag between recent changes and their effects, but further progress can be made by realising the opportunities outlined here and by growing the Red List community and strengthening collaboration with IUCN.

Floral morphology and its relationship to pollination syndromes is examined, for the genera Brunsvigia and Crossyne (Amaryllidaceae). These two genera have similar vegetative morphologies and share the same mode of seed dispersal (anemogeochory). They differ in their floral and inflorescence structures. The species Brunsvigia bosmaniae and Crossyne flava are chosen as representative species of the two genera Brunsvigia and Crossyne. Floral morphology is studied in relationship to an outgroup species Nerine humilis. Pollination syndrome, ability to self-pollinate, levels of natural seed set and patterns of seed dispersal are studied so that reproductive strategies pf the two species can be compared. Crossyne flava is pollinated by a suite of small diurnal insects and can be considered to have a generalist pollination syndrome. The first observation of pollination by moths in Brunsvigia bosmaniae is reported. I show that neither species is able to self, hence pollination events are important. Experimental manipulation reveals that Brunsvigia bosmaniae is pollinator limited. Although this experimental manipulation was not possible for Crossyne flava, high seed set levels in Crossyne flava suggests that levels of pollination are high in Crossyne and low for Brunsvigia. The amount of pollination that takes place is shown to be closely related to floral morphology. Floral divergence of the two genera is thus proposed to be the result of adaptation to a pollinator driven selective regime.

Measuring progress toward international biodiversity targets requires robust information on the conservation status of species, which the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species provides. However, data and capacity are lacking for most hyperdiverse groups, such as invertebrates, plants, and fungi, particularly in megadiverse or high‐endemism regions. Conservation policies and biodiversity strategies aimed at halting biodiversity loss by 2020 need to be adapted to tackle these information shortfalls after 2020. We devised an 8‐point strategy to close existing data gaps by reviving explorative field research on the distribution, abundance, and ecology of species; linking taxonomic research more closely with conservation; improving global biodiversity databases by making the submission of spatially explicit data mandatory for scientific publications; developing a global spatial database on threats to biodiversity to facilitate IUCN Red List assessments; automating preassessments by integrating distribution data and spatial threat data; building capacity in taxonomy, ecology, and biodiversity monitoring in countries with high species richness or endemism; creating species monitoring programs for lesser‐known taxa; and developing sufficient funding mechanisms to reduce reliance on voluntary efforts. Implementing these strategies in the post‐2020 biodiversity framework will help to overcome the lack of capacity and data regarding the conservation status of biodiversity. This will require a collaborative effort among scientists, policy makers, and conservation practitioners., Conservation Biology, 35 (2), ISSN:0888-8892, ISSN:1523-1739

The Maputaland Centre of Endemism (MCE), an area stretching from northern-east KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa to the Limpopo River in southern Mozambique, holds more than 2,500 native plant species. Of those, over 203 are endemic or near endemic to this area. However, the current high human population density in MCE, coupled with high population growth, has increased the pressure on the natural resources of the region and threatens the natural vegetation and plant diversity. Therefore, there is a pressing need to fully understand the threats faced by the Maputaland endemic and near endemic plants and to carry out appropriate conservation actions. In this context, the main aim of the study was to document the distribution of the MCE endemic plant species, with particular emphasis on southern Mozambique. The study also aimed to document the threats to these species and to assess their global conservation status using the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Categories and Criteria. This was done by gathering historical species distribution data from herbarium specimens and by assessing their current distribution in the field. In addition, a land cover data set was used to evaluate the level of habitat transformation over time. As a result, 13 endemics were assessed, 11 of these species for the first time. Of the 13 species assessed, two were assessed as Least Concern, five as Vulnerable, four Endangered, one Critically Endangered, and one possibly Extinct. MaxEnt models were used to model the potential distribution of the species assessed and to identify hotspots and priority areas for conservation. The priority areas represent sites of greatest overlap, where 50% of all modelled species overlap in their suitable potential distributions. With this approach, priority areas were identified that can be used in conservation planning, protected area expansion, or other conservation projects. This analysis showed that the highest number of the study species (>7) is concentrated within the Licuati Forest, located south of Maputo in Matutuine District, southern Mozambique. The main threat to this area is charcoal extraction and although none of the endemic species are targeted for charcoal production, the impact of the associated habitat destruction on the endemic species is expected to cause severe declines. It is recommended that studies on the dynamics of the Licuati Thicket vegetation are needed, particularly in terms of the impact of charcoal extraction on the endemics.