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Charcoal-based products are widely spread and appreciated as fuel for grilling food. However, during their use, they release high emissions that pose significant environmental issues and health risks. Charcoal grilling emissions contain a wide range of pollutants including CO, CO2, NOx, PM, PAHs, VOCs, and trace metals. The emission of these pollutants contributes to both indoor and outdoor air pollution. Factors such as charcoal type and qualitative characteristics, combustion temperature, and the presence of food influence the emission released. Compared to domestic emissions, charcoal grilling restaurants can be a major source of air pollutants affecting both indoor and outdoor air quality. The deterioration of air quality determines health repercussions. This study aimed to review the existing scientific literature on the environmental and health implications of charcoal-based products used in domestic and restaurant settings. The association between charcoal grilling emissions, respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and the increased risk of developing carcinogenic conditions was evaluated. Workers in restaurant settings, exposed to cooking fumes for several hours, are particularly vulnerable to these health risks, but even short exposure can lead to health problems. Mitigation strategies involve different approaches, including the use of high-quality charcoal, implementing a certification system to ensure high-quality tested products, using grilling equipment designed to reduce emissions, ensuring proper ventilation, using abatement systems, and promoting responsible and sustainable grilling practices. Implementing these strategies guarantees more eco-friendly and safer grilling conditions while effectively reducing the adverse impacts of charcoal combustion on the environment and human health.

Salvage logging operations often occur after large disturbances and usually leave behind a substantial quantity of residues, which is fundamental for maintaining soil fertility and facilitating ecosystem dynamics. This study aims to estimate the amount of logging residues following salvage operations categorized by two wood harvesting systems: Cut-To-Length (CTL) and Full-Tree System (FT). Logging residues in the harvested areas were sampled using linear transects and the data collected were divided into classes based on diameter. The quantity of residues was estimated using the Brown method for Fine Wood Debris (FWD) and the Van Wagner method for Coarse Wood Debris (CWD). Furthermore, the carbon and nutrient content associated with logging residues were also determined, considering their interaction with the soil organic layer. Overall, a higher quantity of FWD was detected in the sites cleared with the FT system and a higher quantity of CWD in the sites logged with the CTL system. Differences could be observed for all three years and systems considered, but only the third year reported statistically significant results (p

IntroductionOne of various non-pharmacological treatments for people with dementia (PwD) is horticultural therapy. The aim of this double-blind, pre- and post-test, pilot study was to examine the effects of horticultural activities (HA) for PwD at a residential and daytime care facility. Whether combining HA with elements drawn from other psychosocial interventions (cognitive stimulation) would maximize any benefits was also newly examined.Materials and methodsTwenty-four PwD were involved either in HA, alone (TG1, N = 7) or combined with some cognitive stimulation (TG2, N = 8), or in indoor treatment-as-usual activities (CG, N = 9). Benefits were assessed in terms of general cognitive functioning (for participants with mild-to-moderate dementia), mood, behavioral and psychological symptoms, and quality of life.ResultsNo differences emerged between TG1 and TG2 in any outcome measure, so the two groups were combined (N = 15). Compared with the CG, the TG involved in HA exhibited less frequent and severe behavioral and psychological symptoms and an improved mood after the intervention. Caregivers also reported less distress in the TG after the intervention than in the CG. Considering only PwD with mild-to-moderate dementia, the TG also showed benefits in a measure of general cognitive functioning, and self-reported quality of life, compared with the CG.DiscussionOur results further confirm that engaging PwD in participatory HA in contact with natural elements can decrease their dementia symptoms and their caregivers’ distress, but also increase PwD’s quality of life. Our findings also suggest the need to consider dementia severity when assessing the benefits of horticultural therapy.

IntroductionExposure to nature is known to support psychological wellbeing, and can support People with Dementia (PwD). Here we describe a case study conducted at a care facility for PwD to examine the effect of their exposure to nature after intervention to renovate an existing Therapeutic Garden (TG). Changes in frequency of attendance and behavior in the TG were examined. A single case was also considered to assess individual benefits.Materials and methodsTwenty-one PwD participated in the study. Their behavior in the TG was observed for 4 weeks before and after the intervention (using behavioral mapping), and measures of individual characteristics (general cognitive functioning, behavioral/neuropsychiatric symptoms, depression, and quality of life) were administered.ResultsTen of the 21 PwD visited the TG more often after the intervention, their social behaviors (e.g., talking to others) increased, and their active isolated behavior in the garden (e.g., smelling, touching flowers) tended to increase. The increase in social behavior related to less severe baseline depressive symptoms. Passive isolated behaviors related to more impaired baseline cognitive functioning. The case of Mrs. A extended the findings for the whole sample: although her dementia symptoms (apathy, motor disturbances) worsened, she visited the TG more often after the intervention, her social exchanges and active isolated actions increased, and her agitation and wandering decreased.DiscussionThese results support the benefits of exposure to nature for PwD, and underscore the importance of considering users’ profiles to optimize their use of a TG.

The global charcoal trade is steadily growing, with high-income countries importing significant quantities of this material from regions where its production is often associated with severe environmental issues, including forest overexploitation, illegal logging, and environmental pollution. Promoting local charcoal production in high-income countries is crucial to addressing these challenges. In this study, we have chosen to focus on the European context, specifically emphasizing Italy as a case study. Our study aimed to comprehensively compare five distinct charcoal production systems, including both traditional and modern solutions, with a specific focus on evaluating the quality of the resulting charcoal. Additionally, improvements were evaluated to enhance production efficiency. Traditional systems cannot satisfy production requests, resulting in inefficiencies in manpower, costs, times, and yield. Conversely, recent innovations consider mobile and stationary kiln prototypes. Mobile kilns offer flexibility and cost savings but require operator expertise, limit automation, and have long cycles. In contrast, stationary systems operate continuously, increasing productivity and efficiency, despite higher investment costs. Notably, charcoal quality showed minimal differences. These findings highlighted the potential of new technologies to enhance efficiency, reduce cost and environmental impact, and promote sustainable charcoal production.

This study newly explored the relationship between individual characteristics (i.e., connectedness to nature, a preference for natural rather than built environments, personality, visuospatial preferences) with perceived restorativeness, as well as affective and memory-related benefits of exposure to the nature. Eighty adults were individually exposed to nature by walking in a landscape garden. Measures of connectedness to nature, preference for natural environments, personality traits, and visuospatial preferences were administered. Before and after walking in the garden, participants completed measures of affect (positive and negative emotions) and memory (short-term and working memory, and spatial memory). After walking they completed a Perceived Restorativeness scale. Perceived Restorativeness was found to be significantly explained by Extraversion (personality trait) and Connectedness to Nature. There was no significant influence of individual characteristics on benefits to affect and memory measures. Overall, the results showed that perception of the restorative effect of a natural environment is related to connectedness to nature and personality (extraversion trait). Taken together, our findings highlight the importance of considering individual characteristics to better capture restorative/recovery effects of a natural environment in an individual, and to tailor/implement nature-based solutions to ensure a sustainable urban green environment and to promote quality of life for their citizens.

In Italy the agricultural residues resulting from pruning of vineyards represent a potential energy resource, in particular for the Veneto region which is the second Italian region by vineyard area. This study is aimed at analyzing the main physical and chemical characteristics of vine shoots from the annual pruning of vineyards. This is for their possible use as wood chips in small-medium size power plants. International and European standards for the analysis of biofuels were used to determine the moisture content, heat value, ash content, micro and macro elemental and fibrous fraction (lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and extractives). The samples were collected from three different vineyards in the Vicenza area. The varieties analyzed were Chardonnay, Glera and Merlot. For each variety, the three different components of vine shoots were compared: internode, node and pith, to investigate in which part of the vine shoot the greatest accumulation of metallic elements deriving from plant protection products occurs. The results show significant differences among the energy parameters of the three varieties and three vine shoot components. In particular, the pith shows low heat value and high ash content while the woody components are characterized by higher energy values. Analysis of the chemical elements showed a high content of Cu and Zn in the wood components, node and internode, causing the high ash content found. In particular, Cu content exceeds the limits set by the reference standard. As regards the analysis of the fibrous fraction, a high content of extractives was found in the pith. These extractives could be one of the explanations why the pith of the three varieties analyzed, especially in Chardonnay, have less lower heat value on dry basis (LHV0) values and high ash contents. On the contrary, the node and internode components have a higher content of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Overall, the vine shoots analyzed have characteristics suitable for a possible energy use. However, due to the high ash and Cu content, according to EN ISO 17225-9:2021 standard these can only be used as wood chips for industrial purposes in large power plants.

Skyline tensile forces have been shown to frequently exceed the recommended safety limits during ordinary cable logging operations. Several models for skyline engineering analyses have been proposed. Although skyline tensile forces assume a dynamic behaviour, practical solutions are based on a static approach without consideration of the dynamic nature of the cable systems. The aim of this study was to compare field data of skyline tensile forces with the static calculations derived by dedicated available software such as SkylineXL. To overcome the limitation of static calculation, this work also aimed to simulate the actual response of the tensile fluctuations measured in the real environment by mean of a finite element model (FEM). Field observations of skyline tensile forces included 103 work cycles, recorded over four different cable lines in standing skyline configuration. Payload estimations, carriages positions, and time study of the logging operations were also collected in the field. The ground profiles and the cable line geometries were analysed using digital elevation models. The field data were then used to simulate the work cycles in SkylineXL. The dynamic response of six fully-suspended loads in a single-span cable line was also simulated by a dedicated FEM built through ANSYS ®. The observed data and the software calculations were then compared. SkylineXL resulted particularly reliable in the prediction of the actual tensile forces, with RMSE ranging between 7.5 and 13.5 KN, linked to an average CV(RMSE) of 7.24%. The reliability in predicting the peak tensile forces was lower, reporting CV(RMSE) of 10.12%, but still not likely resulting in a safety or performance problem. If properly set-up and used, thus, SkylineXL could be considered appropriate for operational and practical purposes. This work, however, showed that finite element models could be successfully used for detailed analysis and simulation of the skyline tensile forces, including the dynamic oscillations due to the motion of the carriage and payload along the cable line. Further developments of this technique could also lead to the physical simulation and analysis of the log-to-ground interaction and the investigation of the breakout force during lateral skidding.

The sensitivity and interest toward well-being and health inside work and living environments is constantly growing. Wood is perceived as a natural material by people and its presence in a room generally induces beneficial effects on human beings. In this research, two real-sized identical wood and not-wood rooms have been built to study the psychological effects of a wooden indoor environment on attention recovery and restorativeness. After a multisensory evaluation of different kind of materials used in housing, participants were asked to evaluate the two rooms and then to perform an attention test two times, interspersed with a pause in one of the two rooms. The results show that wood samples are more appreciated than all other materials and that a wood environment induces an attentional resources’ recovery. These findings bring new insights in the interaction between human beings and indoor environments. This new knowledge should be taken into account in the design or renovation of buildings by architects and builders.

In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, low emission or zero-emission technologies have been applied to light and heavyduty vehicles by adopting electric propulsion systems and battery energy storage. Hybrid cable yarders and electrical slack-pulling carriages could represent an opportunity to increase the energy efficiency of forestry operations leading to lower impact timber harvesting and economic savings thanks to reduced fuel consumption. However, given the limited experience with hybrid-electric systems applied to cable yarding operations, these assumptions remain uncertain. This study assessed an uphill cable yarding operation using a hybrid cable yarder and an active slack-pulling electric power carriage over thirty working days. A total of 915 work cycles on four different cable lines were analysed. Longterm monitoring using Can-BUS data and direct field observations were used to evaluate the total energy efficiency, total energy efficiency (%), and fuel consumption per unit of timber extracted (L/m3). The use of the electric-hybrid system with a 700 V supercapacitor to store the recovered energy made it possible to reduce the running time of the engine by about 38% of the total working time. However, only 35% to 41% of the Diesel-based mechanical energy was consumed by the mainline and haulback winches. Indeed, the remaining energy was consumed by the other winches of the cable line system (skyline, strawline winches and carriage recharging or breaking during outhaul) or dissipated by the system (e.g., by the haulback blocks). With reference to all work cycles, the highest net energy consumption occurred during the inhaulunload work element with a maximum of 1.15 kWh, consuming 70% of total net energy consumption to complete a work cycle. In contrast, lower energy consumption was recorded for lateral skid and outhaul, recording a maximum of 23% and 32% of the total net energy consumption, respectively. The estimated recovered energy, on average between the four cable lines, was 2.56 kWh. Therefore, the reduced fuel need was assessed to be approximately 730 L of fuel in the 212.5 PMH15 of observation, for a total emissions reduction of 1907 kg CO2 eq, 2.08 kg CO2 eq for each work cycle.

The post-pandemic era has raised awareness on the importance of physical and psychological well-being for decreasing the vulnerability of both individuals and populations. Citizens in urban areas are subject to numerous stress factors which can be mitigated by green spaces such as parks and gardens. Sensor and internet technologies support nature-based solutions in various ways. In this paper, we show the results of ongoing research on the use of spatially distributed IoT sensors that collect climate data in an ~8 ha urban garden. The novelty resides in the method for merging the IoT data with a detailed 3D model created by a laser scan survey from a drone flight. The end products are 1 m resolution thermal comfort maps of user-defined scenarios, e.g., at specific times or aggregated in daily/monthly/yearly statistics that represent a thermal comfort distribution. For full replicability, the code is open source and available as an R package on Github.

The forest industry around the world is facing common challenges in accessing wood fiber on steep terrain. Fully mechanized harvesting systems based on specialized machines, such as winch-assist forwarders, have been specifically developed for improving the harvesting performances in steep grounds. While the mechanization process is recognized as a safety benefit, the use of cables for supporting the machine traction needs a proper investigation. Only a few studies have analyzed the cable tensile forces of winch-assist forwarders during real operations, and none of them focused on large machines normally used in North America. Consequently, a preliminary study focused on tensile force analysis of large winch-assist forwarders was conducted in three sites in the interior of British Columbia during the fall of 2017. The results report that in 86% of the cycles, the maximum working load of the cable was less than one-third of the minimum breaking load. The tensile force analysis showed an expected pattern of minimum tensile forces while the forwarders were traveling or unloading on the road site and high tensile forces when operating on steep trails, loading or traveling. Further analysis found that the maximum cycle tensile forces occurred most frequently when the machines were moving uphill, independently of whether they were empty or loaded. While the forwarders were operating on the trails, slope, travel direction, and distance of the machines from the anchor resulted statistically significant and able to account for 49% of tensile force variability. However, in the same conditions, the operator settings accounted for 77% of the tensile force variability, suggesting the human factor as the main variable in cable tensile force behavior during winch-assist operations.

Roughness is a dynamic property of the gravel road surface that affects safety, ride comfort as well as vehicle tyre life and maintenance costs. A rapid survey of gravel road condition is fundamental for an effective maintenance planning and definition of the intervention priorities.Different non-contact techniques such as laser scanning, ultrasonic sensors and photogrammetry have recently been proposed to reconstruct three-dimensional topography of road surface and allow extraction of roughness metrics. The application of Microsoft Kinect™ depth camera is proposed and discussed here for collection of 3D data sets from gravel roads, to be implemented in order to allow quantification of surface roughness.The objectives are to: i) verify the applicability of the Kinect sensor for characterization of different forest roads, ii) identify the appropriateness and potential of different roughness parameters and iii) analyse the correlation with vibrations recoded by 3-axis accelerometers installed on different vehicles. The test took advantage of the implementation of the Kinect depth camera for surface roughness determination of 4 different forest gravel roads and one well-maintained asphalt road as reference. Different vehicles (mountain bike, off-road motorcycle, ATV vehicle, 4WD car and compact crossover) were included in the experiment in order to verify the vibration intensity when travelling on different road surface conditions. Correlations between the extracted roughness parameters and vibration levels of the tested vehicles were then verified. Coefficients of determination of between 0.76 and 0.97 were detected between average surface roughness and standard deviation of relative accelerations, with higher values in the case of lighter vehicles.

Cable tensile forces in winch-assist harvesting have been investigated in order to assess the safety concerns of the technology. However, the literature is lacking, particularly in regards to the impact of winch design. In this study, a Summit Winch Assist tethering a feller-director on ground slopes up to 77% was monitored for four days. The cable tensile forces were simultaneously recorded at the harvesting and anchor machine at a frequency of 100 Hz. Cameras and GNSS devices enabled a time study of the operations and the recording of machine positions. Winch functionality and design were disclosed by the manufacturer and used for the interpretation of the results. The cable tensile forces reached 296 kN at the harvesting machine and 260 kN at the anchor machine. The slow negotiation of obstacles while moving downhill recorded the highest peaks, mainly due to threshold settings of the winch in the brake system activation. Lower but significant peaks were also recorded during stationary work tasks. The peaks, however, were limited to a few events and never exceeded the endurance limit of the cable. Overall, the study confirmed recent findings in cable tensile force analysis of active winch-assist operations and provided evidence of the underlaying mechanisms that contribute to cable tensile forces.

Nowadays many types of biomass are studied to satisfy the increased demand of renewable energy based on pellet combustion. However, only a few biomasses fulfil the high quality standard required for pellet used in domestic appliances. European and International standards in force define this quality of non-industrial use of pellets in term of the origin of biomass, physical, mechanical and chemical parameters. Vineyard residues are a worldwide potential source of energy but their compliance to be used in domestic pellet stoves has not been yet proven according to the new standards in force. In order to meet this need, this study makes an exhaustive characterisation of vineyard based pellets manufactured from residues of Prosecco (Glera variety) vineyards, assessing both the quality of biofuel and its behaviour during combustion in a domestic pellet stove. The quality of biofuel has been evaluated according to the in force standards for wood and non-woody pellets. The results show that vineyard pellets do not meet the type B quality standards required for non-industrial use of wood pellet mainly because of the high amount of ash content (>2%) and the high amount of copper (>10 ppm) but they fulfil the specifications of the type B non-woody pellets. Furthermore, during combustion test of vineyard-based pellet the high emission of CO indicates incomplete combustion; and vineyard- based pellet NOx emissions are more than double compared to those obtained during the control tests, confirming that the analysed vineyard-based pellets are unsuitable, as they are, for use in traditional pellet stoves.

This paper analyzes the global-warming potential of materials used to construct the walls of 3 building types—traditional, semimodern, and modern—in Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone in Nepal, using the life-cycle assessment approach. Traditional buildings use local materials, mainly wood and stone, while semimodern and modern buildings use different amounts of commercial materials, such as cement and glass wool. A comparison of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the 3 building types, using as the functional unit 1 m2 of wall, found that traditional buildings release about one-fourth of the greenhouse gas emissions released by semimodern buildings and less than one-fifth of the emissions of modern buildings. However, the use of thermal insulation in the modern building walls helps to reduce the energy consumption for space heating and consequently to reduce the global warming potential. In 25 years, the total global warming potential of a traditional building will be 20% higher than that of a modern building. If local materials, such as wood, are used in building construction, the emissions from production and transportation could be dramatically reduced.

A systematic literature review was settled to investigate the application of GIS in terms of methods, complexity and accuracy to support decision on forestry operations and forest road network planning. A comprehensive search for relevant studies was performed to retrieve as many relevant international scientific publications dealing with forestry operations and forest road network planning in the period 1996–2015. The analysis was based on the development of a systematic literature review comprising three steps:  implementation of the database searches by well-defined search terms  identification of all the publications meeting the requirements of the search terms by abstract  choice of the most relevant publications analysis of the contents. In this review, »GIS and forest operations« includes all the descriptors dealing with GIS applied to support forest operations decision and analysis, while »GIS and forest roads« includes all the papers dealing with the analysis, management and planning of forest road or forest road networks. A total of 372 references and 82 publications were selected for the analysis as they were clearly in conformity with the review topics (GIS applications in forest operations and road network planning). The analysis showed that GIS has also been applied successfully and unambiguously to harvesting and transportation engineering in forest operations management. Further to the prevailing use concerning applications to support tactical planning, a significant number of recent publications have turned successfully to GIS applied at operational level. Again, despite the prevailing use concerning applications to support tactical planning, a significant number of recent publications have also turned successfully to GIS applied at operational level with the topics of Forest Operations Management in terms of optimization, productivity and safety analysis. By considering the recent evolution and improvement of GIS technology and the increasing availability of spatial data, as well their improvement in quality and resolution, the application of GIS in forest harvesting and transportation engineering as well as in forest operations management will expand in the near future.

Different forest management regimes have different carbon footprints due to alternative operational strategies and options. Data concerning CO2 emissions (kg m–3) in felling, extraction, comminution and transport operations, performed under two different forest management regime (close-to-nature and plantation), were collected through a systematic literature review involving 162 scientific papers and compiled into a database. Results show that, within limits, forest operations in plantations produce lower emissions due to easier operational conditions, while transportation in both close-to-nature and plantation based forest operations reported the highest levels of emissions. Literature came from a variety of sources and often differed in context due to factors such as technology, work technique, operator skill and environmental conditions. These factors have been shown to highly affect the results obtained from the studies. Nevertheless, it has been possible to summarize most of the information gathered and to highlight the most representative driving factors in CO2 emissions throughout different forest management regimes.

The EU is one of the largest producers and consumers of wood pellets in the world, covering around 36% of the global wood pellet production and around 50% of the global consumption in 2018. The EU wood pellet consumption is expected to further increase in response to the ambitious energy and climate goals for 2030. Currently, wood pellets are mainly produced from sawdust and other sawmill residues; however, other types of forest feedstock are being investigated in order to meet the increasing wood pellet demand and move toward greater energy independence. The aim of this study is to evaluate and compare the environmental impact of different wood pellet supply chains. A comparative cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment is performed considering the following wood feedstock systems: (i) sawdust from sawmill (S1), (ii) roundwood logs (S2), (iii) whole trees from forest thinning operation (S3), and (iv) logging residues produced during forest tree harvesting (S4). The study focuses on Global Warming Potential (GWP), Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP), and Human Toxicity Potential (HTP). Results show that S3 displays the lowest figures on all the environmental impact categories considered in this study. Compared to the reference case S1, S3 shows a GWP reduction of 46%, an ODP reduction of 6.6%, a POCP reduction of 14.8%, and HTP reduction of 13.2%. S3 and S4 have lower GWP than S1 and S2, even when the biogenic CO2 emissions are considered. Overall, the life cycle phases that have the highest GWP, POCP, and HTP are the burning phase and the preparation of the material to be pelletized, particularly the drying process. Nevertheless, the main phases that contribute to the ODP are the forest operations and the pellet preparation.

Large scale windthrow salvage logging is increasing in Central Europe because of the growth of severe atmospheric events due to global heating. Sustainable forest operations in these conditions are challenging in terms of both productivity performances and safety of the operations. Fully mechanized harvesting systems are the preferred solution on trafficable terrains and proper slopes. However, different work methods and logistic organization of the operations could largely change the overall performances. The study observed three harvesting sites based on fully mechanized cut-to-length systems and located in areas affected by the Vaia storm, which hit north-eastern Italy in October 2018. The objectives were to estimate forwarder productivity in salvage logging in difficult terrain and to identify significant variables affecting this productivity under real working conditions. Time and motion studies were carried out and covered 59.9 PMH15, for a total of 101 working cycles, extracting a total volume of 1277 m3 of timber. Average time consumption for each site was 38.7, 42.2, and 25.1 PMH15 with average productivity of 22.5, 18.5, and 29.4 m3/PMH15, respectively, for Sites A, B, and C. A total of seven explanatory variables significantly affected forwarder productivity. Average load volume, maximum machine inclination during loading, and number of logs positively affected the productivity. On the contrary, travel distance, load volume, maximum ground slope during moving and loading have a negative influence. With an average travel distance of 500 m, the productivity resulted 20.52, 16.31, and 23.03 m3/PMH15, respectively, for Sites A, B, and C. An increase of 200 m of travel distance causes a decrease in productivity of 6%.

The increasing demand of vegetal biomass for biogas production is causing competition with food production. To reduce this problem and to provide new opportunities it is necessary to take into consideration different kinds of vegetable biomass that are more sustainable. Grass from the maintenance of non-cultivated areas such as riverbanks has not yet been fully studied as a potential biomass for biogas production. Although grass has lower methane potential, it could be interesting because it does not compete with food production. However, there is a lack of appropriate technologies and working system adapted to these areas. In this paper, different systems that could be available for the mowing and harvesting of grass along riverbanks have been preliminarily assessed through the evaluation of the field capacity, labour requirement, economic and energy aspects. The splitting of the cutting and harvesting phases into operations with different machinery seems to be the best system for handling this biomass. However, these solutions have to take into consideration the presence of obstacles or accessibility problems in the harvesting areas that could limit the operational feasibility and subsequent correct sizing.

The growing interest about wood as fuel regards not only wood chips and pellets but also firewood, especially in mountain and rural areas where domestic heating plants are widely used. Due to the increased demand for firewood, harvesting activities have extended on broadleaved high forests as well as coppice. As a consequence, the diameter of logs has increased requiring larger and larger splitting machines; nowadays it is not uncommon to find on the market splitters able to process logs with diameter up to 50-60 cm. In order to increase the productivity, the effort of machine producers is directed to obtain the complete splitting of the log into firewood in only one step using multiple ways splitting knives. This technical solution may cause some drawbacks especially when the splitting knives are not properly adapted to the log diameter; it happens that the size of firewood is not homogeneous and splinters are produced, which requires using screens to separate them from the main product. In order to evaluate the work quality of a firewood processor, equipped with multiple ways splitting knives, an experimental test has been carried out using a machine in which the log diameter is automatically detected through a laser device; according to the log diameter the multiple ways splitting knives (formed by fixed and mobile knives, the latter hydraulically operated) is properly set up to obtain regularly sized firewood. Furthermore the log is automatically centred on the splitting knife set-up. The results of the experimental test showed that the firewood processor is able to produce firewood with homogeneous size and with a low production of splinters, regardless of log diameter.

In this study a Discrete-event simulation (D-es) has been developed to analyze the wood supply chain for firewood production in a mountain area in North-eastern Italy. The D-es is applied in the modeling of extraction (Full Tree System), processing of roundwood into wood assortments (cross-cut and sorting), offroad and on-road transport. In order to estimate the productivity functions and parameters, field studies were conducted to gather data about the different operations linked in the model. Also a GIS network analysis was developed to integrate the spatial information onthe covered distance to the D-es model for each of the supposed Scenarios. The results indicats that an increment of 5 m ha-1 of the forest road network could significantly increase the productivity of the wood supply chain up to 2%.

An analysis of researches on cable logging carried out in the past 12 years (2000–2011) as found in the scientific literature at international level is proposed in order to evaluate which have been the main topics of interest of the researchers and to evaluate the evolution of the research in the field of cable logging in the next future. International scientific literature on cable logging was extracted from the main databases, scientific journals and conference proceedings on forest engineering. A total of 244 references were retrieved and used to create a library implemented in Thompson Reuter EndNote® software. The analysis of the references through the use of some descriptors has allowed to define that in the period 2000–2011 most of the attention of forest engineers interested in cable logging was attracted by the study of the efficiency of the cable system, followed by the study and analysis of the impact produced by or derived from the environmental components by the use of cable logging. Cable system simulation has played an important role, especially because of the variety of methodologies developed by forest engineers. Even if the number of references indicates some interest in cable system mechanics, most of the references deal with studies and tests about ropes, mainly synthetic ones. Carriage, yarders and supports seem to have been less attractive as objects of study. Ergonomics and safety in the field of cable logging have revealed a growing attention especially in the recent years, while an almost complete lack of interest in education and training was observed. Starting from such considerations, some prospects of the cable logging research for the next future were envisaged.

Tree stability assessment is fundamental to preserve the safety of both people and goods. This topic attributes high relevance to cable-supported harvesting where trees and stumps are used as supporting and anchoring elements. In this case, the applied external loads are characterized by higher magnitude and dynamic amplification effects than the typical forces acting on trees (e.g., those derived from meteorological events). Consequently, due to the higher forces involved on cable-supported harvesting on relatively young trees used as supports and anchors, the risk of uprooting and stem failures is real. Numerous studies have been conducted on tree stability and the impact of the external loads has been positively linked to the consequent tree failures, in terms of root-plate overturning and stem breakages, or parasite-mediated wood decay involving the root system, thus giving a better understanding of how different trees species deal with such occurrences. This review aims to synthetize and examine the main aspects covered by research works available in literature that, directly or indirectly, might be helpful in clarifying the behavior of standing trees or tree stumps used as supports and anchors in cable-supported forest operations. Lastly, areas that lack research in this particular topic as well as consequent operating suggestions are highlighted in the conclusions.

In Italy, where conventional forests have a protective rather than productive purpose, some silvicultural operations as first and second thinning could be carried out in an economic way adopting systems based on small scale mechanization. Authors tested a system based on small scale mechanization for bunching and skidding operations, using an All Terrain Vehicle (ATV), a compact, agile and versatile vehicle that adapts well to dense and rather inaccessible forests, such as forests of artificial origin where no kind of intervention, particularly thinning, had ever been carried out. The vehicle was used for bunching, using an electric winch, and for skidding whole trees. The use of the ATV showed that it is a competitive vehicle with both traditional and cutting edge vehicles, performing a traction power average of 313 daN and PHS0 productivity variable from 1.20 to 3.05 td.m.h-1. Such figures confirm how in first thinning, on level ground but also on slopes (max 50%), over distances not exceeding 200 m, the ATV is a perfectly suitable vehicle. Furthermore, the impact of the vehicle on the ground and especially on the shallow soil horizons was negligible and had no effect on tree roots.

The quality of agricultural and forest products are related to the productive process in which innovative mechanical technologies are used. The innovation should be considered at product, process and enterprise level, the last one being considered as changes into enterprise organization, included services diversification. In the field of machinery used for agricultural products, from soil tillage to harvesting and post-harvesting processes the innovation dealing with products, but also with energy use, environmental protection, work safety has been important due to the mechanical technology output. In the forest sector working systems in which operations are carried out in totally mechanized way, with small turn to semi-mechanized operations, are growing. They are innovations that should change the relationship with young generation which could consider the mechanical technologies attractive for a working activity until now evaluated not much desiderable.

A GIS-based approach is presented in order to define a decision support system tool for strategic planning of forest biomass supply chain for a heating/energy use. The presented GIS-based approach focus its analysis on forest management data, road network characteristics, terrain features and chipping and transporting cost. According to two different heating plants location, results on the availability of logging residues for energy use are presented in form of cost supply curves. For the investigated case study, supply curves evidence that, also at local level, different locations of heating plants can affect the cost-efficient use of logging residues in form of wood chips.

The quality requirements of wood biofuels are regulated by a series of harmonized international standards. These standards define the technical parameter limits that influence the quality of solid biomass as a fuel. In 2014 the European reference standard for solid biofuel was replaced by the International ISO standard. In the case of wood chips, the main difference between the European and International standards is the definition of particle size distribution classes. In this context, this study analyses the quality of wood chips and its variation over the years according to the “former” (EN 14691-4) and “in force” (ISO 17225-4) standards. A Soft Independent Modelling of Class Analogy (SIMCA) model was built to predict the best quality of wood chips and to clarify the relationship between quality and standard parameters, time and changes in the standard regulations. The results show that, compared to the EN standards, classification with the ISO standards increases the samples belonging to the best quality classes and decreases the not classified samples. Furthermore, all the SIMCA models have a high sensitivity (>90%), reflect the differences introduced to the quality standards and are therefore suitable for monitoring the quality of wood chips and their changes.

A cost effective technical solution of a forest double steering trailer was studied and tested, allowing decrease of radius of curvature and increase of the maneuverability, independently from the length of the transported logs. The steering system improves the so called “stingertype truck” configuration using an articulated frame; through a rearward hinge, the front wheels direction mechanically controls and adapts the direction of rear twin wheels. The study was based on CAD simulations considering the dimensions of the trailer transporting logs with a length up to 12 m. For different log lengths the simulation analyzed the total maneuver area, in terms of minimum curve radius and curve widening. A field test on a prototype operated for transport of long logs along a representative forest road in the Alps was carried out. The results confirm the improvements foreseen by CAD simulations, with allowed curve radius down to 6 m, even with 12 m logs.

The first results of a new approach for implementing operational monitoring tool to control the performance of forest mechanisation chains are proposed and discussed. The solution is based on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) tools that are the core of a datalogging system that, in combination with a specific inference-engine, is able to analyse process times, work distances, forward speeds, vehicle tracking and number of working cycles in forest operations. As a consequence the operational monitoring control methods could provide an evaluation of the efficiency of the investigated forest operations. The study has monitored the performance of a tower yarder with crane and processor-head, during logging operations. The field surveys consisted on the installation of the GNSS device directly on the forest equipment for monitoring its movements. Simultaneously the field survey considered the integration of the GNSS information with a time study of work elements based on the continuous time methods supported by a time study board. Additionally, where possible, the onboard computer of the forest machine was also used in order to obtain additional information to be integrated to the GNSS data and the time study. All the recorded GNSS data integrated with the work elements study were thus post-processed through GIS analysis. The preliminary overview about the application of this approach on harvesting operations has permitted to assess a good feasibility of the use of GNSS in the relief of operative times in high mechanised forest chains. Results showed an easy and complete identification of the different operative cycles and elementary operations phases, with a maximum difference between the two methodologies of 10.32%. The use of GNSS installed on forest equipment, integrated with the inferenceengine and also with an interface for data communication or data storage, will permit an automatic or semi-automatic operational monitoring, improving the quantity of data and reducing the engagement of the surveyor.

In some mountain areas of northeastern Italy, the present forest road network has been partially developed using the previous military road network built during the First World War (WW I). The current management of the areas of forest considers the road network essential to provide access for forestry activities, but also to increase the value of recreational activities and tourism related to the historical importance of this area. The aim of the study was to investigate the technical evolution of a mountain road network from the beginning of the last century to today. The research consisted in a preliminary reconnaissance of the original road network using the WW I military maps, a further reconnaissance using the technical maps dated to the 1960s, and the survey of the current road network through the differential global positioning system (D-GPS). The study also aimed to evaluate the current condition of the original road network according to the use made of it today in order to highlight how building standards influenced its evolution in terms of transportation systems and traffic management.

The estimation and policy use of spatially explicit discrete choice models has yet to receive serious attention from practitioners. In this study we aim to analyze how geographical variables influence individuals’ sensitivity to key features of heating systems, namely investment cost and CO2 emissions. This is of particular policy interest as heating systems are strongly connected to two major current environmental issues: emissions of pollutants and increased use of renewable resources. We estimate a mixed logit model (MXL) to spatially characterize preference heterogeneity in the mountainous North East of Italy. Our results show that geographical variables are significant sources of variation of individual’s sensitivity to the investigated attributes of the system. We generate maps to show how the willingness to pay to avoid CO2 emissions varies across the region and to validate our estimates ex-post. We discuss why this could be a promising approach to inform applied policy decisions.